The present protocol describes two methods to measure caspase activity through a fluorogenic substrate using flow cytometry or a spectrofluorometer.
The activation of cysteine proteases, known as caspases, remains an important process in multiple forms of cell death. Caspases are critical initiators and executioners of apoptosis, the most studied form of programmed cell death. Apoptosis occurs during developmental processes and is a necessary event in tissue homeostasis. Pyroptosis is another form of cell death that utilizes caspases and is a critical process in activating the immune system through the activation of the inflammasome, which results in the release of members of the interleukin-1 (IL-1) family. To assess caspase activity, target substrates can be assessed. However, sensitivity can be an issue when examining single cells or low-level activity. We demonstrate how a fluorogenic substrate can be used with a population-based assay or single-cell assay by flow cytometry. With proper controls, different amino acid sequences can be used to identify which caspases are active. Using these assays, the simultaneous loss of the inhibitors of apoptosis proteins upon tumor necrosis factor (TNF) stimulation has been identified, which primarily induces apoptosis in macrophages rather than other forms of cell death.
Caspases are involved in several forms of programmed cell death. Apoptosis is the most studied form of programmed cell death and is associated with caspase activity1. All caspases possess a large and small catalytic subunit. Caspase-1, caspase-4, caspase-5, caspase-9, and caspase-11 possess a caspase activation and recruitment domain (CARD), and caspase-8 and caspase-10 contain death effector domains (DED)2,3,4,5 (Table 1). Apoptosis can be initiated by two major pathways: the extrinsic pathway and the intrinsic pathway. The extrinsic apoptotic pathway is triggered by death receptors, which are part of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNFSF). Death receptors possess DED domains, facilitating caspase-8 activity6. The intrinsic apoptotic pathway involves the activation of caspase-9 after the formation of the apoptosome, requiring the release of cytochrome c and Apaf-17. The activation of either initiator caspase, caspase-8 or caspase-9, leads to the cleavage and subsequent activation of the executioner caspases, which are caspase-3, caspase-6, and caspase-7. Identifying that the executioner caspases are active indicates that the cells are undergoing apoptosis, and this activation is considered an important factor in defining the mode of cell death.
Caspase activation is also a critical juncture for regulating inflammation and the induction of alternative forms of programmed cell death. For example, caspase-1 activation leads to the maturation of pro-inflammatory cytokines of the interleukin-1 family8. The release and activation of cytokines from this family, particularly IL-1β and IL-18, result from gasdermin D cleavage and pore formation at the plasma membrane9,10. Inadequate membrane repair of gasdermin D pores can result in a type of cell death known as pyroptosis11. Moreover, caspase-8 activity results in the inhibition of a caspase-independent cell death known as necroptosis12. Receptor-interacting serine/threonine protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) is one of the critical factors in necroptosis and in driving inflammation regulated by NF-kB. Models have shown that RIPK1 is cleaved by caspase-8, resulting in limiting NF-kB signaling, apoptosis, and necroptosis13,14. Therefore, identifying the activity of different caspases can aid in understanding the resulting inflammation and cell death modality.
Independent of the function of caspases in regulating cell death modalities, caspase activity can also regulate other cytokine families, such as interferon (IFN), in response to infection15,16. Additionally, caspases are involved in non-cell death functions, including cell fate decisions, tissue repair and regeneration, tumorigenesis through DNA repair, and neuronal synapse function. The activity of caspases in these non-lethal roles is thought to be limited by the cellular localization and amount of caspases. Therefore, quantifying the level of caspase activity may well define whether a cell undergoes cell death or whether the caspase plays a role in a non-cell death function4,17,18.
Caspase activity can be assessed by multiple methods. Western blotting for cleaved caspases and their substrates has been used as an indicator of activity, but these assays are qualitative at best. To determine whether caspase activity is associated with cell death, a quantitative measurement is ideal. Since caspases cleave substrates at a recognition site consisting of four amino acids, colorimetric, luminescence, or fluorometric methods have been developed. However, caspases appear to have plasticity in their substrate recognition19,20. The recognition sequence is not associated with the protein domains (Table 1). The tetrapeptide sequence DEVD, however, can be used to detect caspase-3 and caspase-7 activity20,21.
Smac mimetics are compounds targeting the inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs). The use of Smac mimetics in a subset of cancer cells causes the cells to become sensitive to TNF-induced cell death22. In primary macrophages, Smac mimetics cause cell death without the exogenous addition of TNF23,24. The loss of cIAP1 by Smac mimetic-induced degradation results in the production of TNF. If caspase activity is detected, this means the cells did not die by necroptosis but in an apoptotic manner. In this method, the detection of cleaved DEVD substrate is used to identify caspase-3/caspase-7 activity. Further experiments to confirm apoptotic cell death have been published previously24.
The present study was performed with the approval and following the guidelines of the animal ethical committee of the University of Zürich (#ZH149/19). Male C57Bl/6J mice aged 8-16 weeks, bred and housed in specific pathogen-free (SPF) conditions, were used for the present study. The intact bones can be kept on ice in sterile Hank's buffered saline solution (HBSS) with 2% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS). Bone marrow was collected from the femur and tibia of the mouse25 on the day of differentiation. Both methods for assessing caspase activity can be used for other cell types, including both primary and transformed.
1. Differentiating bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs)
NOTE: Perform all the steps in a tissue culture laminar flow hood, and use sterile aseptic techniques.
2. Harvesting, seeding, and treatment of cells
NOTE: Perform all the steps in a tissue culture laminar flow hood, and use sterile aseptic techniques. Fully differentiated macrophages adhere to the plate, allowing for easy separation, while floating cells can be discarded. Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) can be used with or without Ca2+ and Mg2+.
3. Preparing cell lysates from treated cells
NOTE: This step must be done on ice, and the reagents and materials must be pre-cooled.
4. Protein quantification using the BCA assay
NOTE: Other reagents or assays can be used to quantitate the amount of protein in each sample. In the population-based assay, the samples can be compared by normalizing the amount of protein used in the assay.
5. Population-based assay for caspase-3/caspase-7 activity
NOTE: Do not allow the cell lysates in the plate to sit on ice for more than 3 h. If caspase activity is present, this increases over time despite the sample being on ice. If the samples were frozen, thaw them on ice, and proceed immediately once the lysates have thawed.
6. Single-cell assay (flow cytometry analysis) for caspase-3/caspase-7 activity
Primary mouse macrophages were differentiated for 6 days. After 6 days, the cells were harvested, counted, and seeded. The following treatments were used: no treatment and Smac mimetic (Compound A)22 at 250 nM and 500 nM for 16 h (Figure 1). The experiment was performed in duplicate to allow caspase-3/caspase-7 activation to be assessed either by a population-based assay or single-cell analysis using flow cytometry.
The protein concentration of the cell lysates was quantified using the BCA assay (Supplementary Table 1). This is necessary to ensure the amount of protein used in the caspase-3/caspase-7 activity assay is the same between samples. In this population-based assay, the data can be presented in two ways. The first is to show the kinetics by plotting the adjusted fluorescence (y-axis) versus time (x-axis) (Figure 2A). Alternatively, the slope can be calculated to directly compare the samples (Figure 2B). The increase in slope upon 500 nM Smac mimetic treatment was not significant based on an ordinary one-way ANOVA with multiple comparisons (Dunnett's multiple comparison test28).
For the analysis of caspase-3/caspase-7 activity using flow cytometry, the cells and supernatant were harvested. Unstained cells or fluorescence minus one were used as a negative control, as well as the untreated cells. A histogram of the cells collected by flow cytometry showed a shift in fluorescence for the cells treated with Smac mimetics in comparison to the untreated cells (Figure 2C). The data can be shown either as median fluorescence intensity (Figure 2D) or as a fold change over the untreated cells (Figure 2E).
Figure 1: Flow chart of the study. (A) Femurs and tibias were excised from C57Bl/6 mice. The bones were flushed and differentiated in 20 ng/mL M-CSF for 6 days. (B) On day 6, macrophages were harvested and reseeded for treatment. One set of cells was harvested for lysates and assessed by fluorogenic activity, while the other set was harvested, incubated with the fluorogenic substrate, and assessed by flow cytometry. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 2: Kinetic assay for caspase-3/caspase-7 activity and substrate cleavage by flow cytometry. (A,B) Representative data of the kinetic assay for caspase-3/caspase-7 activity (C–E) and substrate cleavage by flow cytometry. The macrophages were treated with two concentrations of Smac mimetic (Compound A; 250 nM and 500 nM) for 16 h. (A) Detection of the cleaved DEVD AFC substrate over time. The data were normalized to the protein concentration in the sample. (B) The rate of cleavage (slope) of DEVD AFC for each sample was normalized to the untreated slope and presented as the fold change over the untreated cells. (C) Flow cytometric histograms of the cells incubated with the caspase-3 substrate. (D,E) MFI comparison and fold change in the MFI compared to the untreated sample. Each data point represents an independent sample; mean ± standard error of the mean are shown; *p < 0.05 using a one-way ANOVA and multiple comparison tests (Dunnett's multiple comparison test). Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Caspase | Species | Substrate sequence | Protein domains | ||
Caspase-1 | Hs, Mm | (W/L)EHD | CARD, large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-2 | Hs, Mm | DEXD | CARD, large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-4 | Hs | (W/L)EHD | CARD, large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-5 | Hs | (W/L)EHD | CARD, large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-9 | Hs, Mm | (I/V/L)E(H/T)D | CARD, large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-11 | Mm | (W/L)EHD | CARD, large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-12 | Mm | ATAD | CARD, large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-8 | Hs, Mm | (I/V/L)E(H/T)D | DED, large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-10 | Hs | (I/V/L)E(H/T)D | DED, large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-3 | Hs, Mm | DEXD | large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-6 | Hs, Mm | (I/V/L)E(H/T)D | large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
Caspase-7 | Hs, Mm | DEXD | large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
caspase-14 | hs, mm | (W/L)EHD | large domain, small catalytic domain | ||
CARD | caspase activation and recruitment domain | ||||
DED | death effector domain | ||||
Hs | homo sapien | ||||
Mm | mus musculus |
Table 1: Substrate specificity and the protein domains of the caspases. The table is adapted from McStay et al.20; Shalini et al.3; and van Opdenbosch and Lamkanfi4.
Supplementary Table 1: DEVD kinetic analysis. Please click here to download this Table.
In this method, a fluorogenic substrate is used in a population-based assay or single-cell analysis to measure caspase-3/caspase-7 activity. Both methods measure the caspase activity in a quantitative manner based on the cleavage of a substrate. One advantage is the ability to utilize these methods for numerous samples. With these methods, caspase-3/caspase-7 activity is detected in primary macrophages treated with Smac mimetics.
A critical aspect of the population-based fluorometric assay is the time from lysis to reading the fluorescence. The samples must be kept on ice throughout the procedure, particularly prior to “reading” the assay. This prevents premature cleavage and fluorescence of the substrate. Using the population-based assay, less optimization may be required. The amount of protein used in the assay is normalized, allowing the samples to be directly compared. One caveat is that at a late stage of apoptotic cell death, the total protein amount is reduced; hence, the detection of caspase activity may not be possible. Different kinetics or different treatment doses are recommended to circumvent this problem. In addition, other software can be used to accurately assess the rate of caspase activity besides the software described in this method.
For the flow cytometric assay, enough events or cells are required to gate the populations confidently. In addition, more optimization in the flow-based assay may be required to achieve the optimal ratio of substrate to cell number. However, with flow cytometry, this method lends itself to measuring additional parameters, such as cell surface markers for cell type identification.
Both the population and single-cell methods could be used for other caspases. However, it is important to remember that the recognition sequence is less discriminated for other caspases. As such, other methods for caspase activity must be used. This includes the inhibition of caspase activity, CRISPR or knock-down of specific caspases, and western blotting to detect the cleavage of known substrates.
One alternative method for detecting caspase activity is time-lapse imaging. The same permeable caspase substrate could be used along with other markers of viability, such as annexin V, to provide information on the kinetics of cell death. Imaging would also separate the caspase activity and cell survival, allowing for the detection of sublethal amounts of caspase activity in a cell population. The non-lethal functions of caspase-3/caspase-7 are linked to antiviral regulation in innate immune cells29, particularly the activation of type I IFN via mitochondrial DNA release15,16. Thus, these assays to measure caspase activity are critical for identifying different modes of cell death and may be useful in assessing non-cell death functions.
The authors have nothing to disclose.
W.W.W. is supported by Clöetta Medical Research Fellow grant, S.R. is supported by the CanDoc UZH Forschungskredit, and J.T. is supported by the Chinese Scholarship Council.
1.5 mL microfuge tubes | Sarstedt | 72.706.400 | |
15 cm Petri plates | Sarstedt | 82.1184.500 | |
37 degree incubator shaker | IKA shaker KS 4000i | 97014-816 | distributed by VWR |
6-well cell culture dish | Sarstedt | 83.392 | |
96 well flat bottom, white polystyrene, non-sterile | Sigma | CLS3600 | |
96 well flat plate | Sarstedt | 82.1581 | |
Ac-DEVD-AFC | Enzo Life Sciences | ALX-260-032-M005 | Caspase-3 substrate |
BD Fortessa | BD | any flow cytometer with the appropriate excitation and emission detector will work | |
b-glycerolphosphate | Sigma | G9422-10G | |
caspase-3 recombinant | Enzo Life Sciences | ALX-201-059-U025 | |
CHAPS | Sigma | 1.11662 | |
DMEM, low glucose, pyruvate | Thermoscientific | 31885023 | |
DMSO | Sigma | D8418-250ML | |
EDTA | Sigma | 03685-1KG | |
EGTA | Sigma | 324626-25GM | |
Etoposide | MedChem Express | HY-13629 | |
FBS | Thermoscientific | 26140 | |
Flow cytometry tubes | Falcon | 352008 | |
Flowjo | Flowjo | A license in required but any program that can analyze .fcs files will suffice | |
Glycerol | Sigma | G5516-500ML | |
HEPES | Sigma | H4034 | |
Magic Red caspase-3/7 assay kit; flow cytometry or imaging | Immunochemistry Technologies | 935 | |
M-CSF | ebioscience | 14-8983-80 | now a subsidiary of Thermoscientific |
M-Plex | Tecan | any fluorometric reader will work with the appropriate excitation and emission detectors | |
NaCl | Roth | 3957.1 | |
PBS pH 7.4 | Thermoscientific | 10010023 | |
Penicillin-Streptomycin-Glutamine (100X) | Thermoscientific | 10378016 | |
Pierce BCA Protein Assay Kit | ThermoFisher Scientific | 23225 | protein concentration assay |
protease inhibitors | Biomol | P9070.100 | |
Smac mimetic, Compound A | Tetralogics | also known as 12911; structure shown in supplementary figures of Vince et al., Cell 2007 | |
Sodium Fluoride | Sigma | S7920-100G | |
sodium orthovanadate | Sigma | S6508-10G | |
sodium pyrophosphate | Sigma | P8010-500G | |
Staurosporine | MedChem Express | HY-15141 | |
sucrose | Sigma | 1.07687 | |
Tris Base | Sigma | T1503-1KG | |
Triton X100 | Sigma | T8787-50ML | |
TrypLE | Thermoscientific | A1285901 | In the protocol, it is listed as Trypsin |