Here, an optimized step-by-step protocol is provided for fixation, immunostaining, and sectioning of embryos to detect specialized signaling filopodia called cytonemes in developing mouse tissues.
Developmental tissue patterning and postdevelopmental tissue homeostasis depend upon controlled delivery of cellular signals called morphogens. Morphogens act in a concentration- and time-dependent manner to specify distinct transcriptional programs that instruct and reinforce cell fate. One mechanism by which appropriate morphogen signaling thresholds are ensured is through delivery of the signaling proteins by specialized filopodia called cytonemes. Cytonemes are very thin (≤200 nm in diameter) and can grow to lengths of several hundred microns, which makes their preservation for fixed-image analysis challenging. This paper describes a refined method for delicate handling of mouse embryos for fixation, immunostaining, and thick sectioning to allow for visualization of cytonemes using standard confocal microscopy. This protocol has been successfully used to visualize cytonemes that connect distinct cellular signaling compartments during mouse neural tube development. The technique can also be adapted to detect cytonemes across tissue types to facilitate the interrogation of developmental signaling at unprecedented resolution.
Embryonic development is orchestrated through coordinated activation of morphogen signaling pathways. Morphogens are small, secreted proteins that are categorized into Sonic Hedgehog (SHH), transforming growth factor β (TGF-β)/bone morphogenic protein (BMP), Wingless-related integration site (WNT), and fibroblast and epidermal growth factor (FGF/EGF) families. Morphogens are produced and released from cellular organizing centers during tissue development and establish signaling gradients across organizing fields of cells to inform tissue morphogenesis1,2,3,4,5. One representation of morphogen gradients is found in the developing nervous system, where the presumptive central nervous system is patterned through morphogen pathway activation. This tissue, referred to as the neural tube, is comprised of opposing gradients of SHH secreted by the ventral-most notochord and floor plate, and WNTs/BMPs secreted from the dorsal roofplate, to pattern distinct neural progenitor regions6. The neural tube is commonly used to interrogate morphogen gradient integrity in developmental research.
Morphogen gradient formation relies on tight regulation of signal dispersion7. One cellular mechanism by which this occurs is through the formation of long signaling filopodia called cytonemes that facilitate direct delivery of morphogens from signal-producing cells to specific target cell populations. Cytonemes have been observed to extend hundreds of micrometers to deposit morphogens on signal-receiving cell membranes8,9. Disruption of cytoneme-mediated morphogen transport leads to developmental anomalies in both flies and vertebrates, highlighting their importance during tissue patterning10,11,12,13,14.
To date, cytonemes have been documented in Drosophila, chick, and zebrafish models, but imaging of the structures in developing mammalian embryos remains challenging8,9,15. A hurdle to effectively imaging cytonemes in complex mammalian tissues in situ is their thin and fragile nature, which makes them susceptible to damage by conventional fixation methods8. We had previously developed and optimized protocols for a modified electron microscopy fixative (MEM-fix) to preserve cytonemes in cultured cells and enable their study using confocal microscopy16,17.
Use of the MEM-fix technique has permitted identification of some of the molecules involved in SHH-induced cytoneme formation and function11,16,17. However, confirmation of these findings in the physiologically relevant context of neural tube patterning necessitated the development of novel techniques to fix and image mouse embryonic tissue. A protocol to fix mouse embryos in a manner that maintains cytoneme integrity and permits immunostaining and subsequent sectioning of embryonic tissue for confocal analysis is outlined here. This protocol was developed using a membrane-tethered green fluorescent protein (GFP) to label membrane extensions from the SHH-producing cells in the developing neural tube. Implementation of this protocol will address unanswered questions pertaining to the prevalence and significance of cytonemes in developing mammalian systems.
This protocol follows the approved animal care guidelines of Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. All strains were backcrossed five generations to the C57BL/6J strain.
1. Embryo isolation and whole mount staining
2. Embryo embedding, sectioning, and mounting
3. Imaging
Use of a larger mold of a 12-well plate with 2.5-3 mL of agarose solution per well was ideal for embedding and suspending several embryos over a short period of time (Figure 1A). The excess area allows for correct orientation when cutting the agarose block for sectioning. When cutting the agarose block, it is important to maintain excess agarose along the bottom of the block where it will be glued to the tape on the object holder. The embryo should be in the upper half of the block (Figure 1B). However, the bottom section should not be too large as excess block increases the chances of altering the cut angle as the blade pushes into the block while sectioning. Examples of correctly oriented sections are shown (Figure 1C,D).
While developing this protocol, vibratome sectioning was compared to cryostat sectioning. Cryostat sectioning of the tissue rarely preserved cellular extensions (Figure 2 cryostat and Figure 3A,B vibratome). Cryostat sections allowed for the detection of some GFP-positive membrane fragments between cells of the notochord and neural tube (Figure 2A arrowhead) and between adjacent neural tube cells (Figure 2B,B' arrowheads). However, F-actin staining of cellular extensions in the highly filamentous mesenchymal cells surrounding the neural tube was impaired in cryostat sections (Figure 2C,C' arrow, vs Figure 3C,D). These cryostat results indicate that only some traces of broken cellular extensions remain following this method. Thus, vibratome sectioning is preferred to efficiently preserve these delicate extensions for subsequent analysis.
Minimal disruption of whole embryo and individual tissue sections is essential for high-quality imaging of cellular extensions. Tissue sections that have undergone any folding or buckling will be evident by the absence of the notochord or a large separation (>30 µm) between the notochord and the ventral floor plate of the neural tube (Figure 3B). This is usually accompanied by loss of mesenchymal cells that normally surround the neural tube (Figure 3A, arrow). Damaged sections will also result in a loss of visible cellular membrane extensions migrating between epithelial cells (Figure 3B compared to Figure 3A, arrowheads). Even minor distortions to the sections may cause fragmentation of actin-based extensions and large gaps to form between cells (Figure 3D, arrowheads, compared to well-preserved Figure 3C), underscoring the need for delicate handling at all steps.
Figure 1: Example of E9.5 Shh-Cre; Rosa26 mTmG stained, embedded, and sectioned embryo. (A) A single embryo in a 12-well plate, embedded in 4% LMP agarose. (B) Example of a correctly oriented embryo within the agarose block cut down to size for vibratome mounting. Excess agarose block is present along the bottom. (C) Bright field image of 100 µm thick embryo section embedded in LMP agarose. (D) Immunofluorescence imaging of a section after removal of agarose. Anti-GFP-stained mGFP (green) represents Shh-expressing cells in the tissue, with other cell lineages expressing membrane Tomato (red), DAPI in blue. Neural tube (bracket) and mGFP-positive notochord (arrow) are clearly visible. Scale bars = 1 cm (A), 5 mm (B), and 100 µm (C,D). Abbreviations: LMP = low melting point; mGFP = membrane green fluorescent protein; Shh = Sonic Hedgehog; DAPI = 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 2: Example of cryostat-sectioned neural tube floor plate and notochord with fragmented membrane extensions. (A) 20 µm thick E9.5 Shh-Cre; Rosa26 mTmG19,20,21 section stained for GFP (green), F-actin (red), and DAPI (blue). mGFP puncta are visible between the notochord and floorplate (arrowhead) and (B,B') migrating between adjacent cells of the neural tube. (C,C') F-actin staining fails to detect any clear cytonemes on mesenchymal cells surrounding the neural tube (arrow). Scale bars = 20 µm. Abbreviations: mGFP = membrane green fluorescent protein; Shh = Sonic Hedgehog; DAPI = 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 3: Examples of optimal and suboptimal vibratome tissue sections and staining of the neural tube floor plate, notochord, and surrounding cells. Examples of delicately handled sections (A,C), compared to (B) a folded tissue section and (D) a poorly handled section from a Shh-Cre; Rosa26 mTmG and a ShhGFP/+ embryo19,20,21. Optimally handled sections allow detection of cytonemes between adjacently localized floor plate neural epithelial cells (A, arrowheads). Neural tube adjacent notochord (A, mGFP-expressing) and mesenchymal cells (A, arrow) should be visible. (C,D) F-actin- and DAPI-stained sections should have consistent spacing of mesenchymal cells and F-actin-based cytonemes (arrows) surrounding the neural tube and notochord (C). Any minor folding or disruption of the sections can cause gaps and broken F-actin fragments (D, arrowheads). Scale bars = 10 µm. Abbreviations: mGFP = membrane green fluorescent protein; Shh = Sonic Hedgehog; DAPI = 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
This protocol was developed for the preservation of delicate cytonemes in embryonic tissue sections for high-resolution fluorescence microscopy. To date, visualization of cytonemes in tissue across various model organisms has relied largely upon ectopic expression of fluorescently labeled proteins using live-tissue imaging. Unfortunately, the use of fluorescently labeled live-imaging is rarely conducive to the analysis of endogenously expressed proteins, can introduce time constraints, and requires specialized imaging stages and microscopes. The staining and sectioning method described here preserves cytonemes and other cellular extensions to permit immunohistochemistry for the eventual detection of endogenously expressed proteins. This technology will facilitate new insights into how morphogens are transported across different tissues in vivo and expands the scope of model systems where cytonemes can be studied.
This protocol uses whole-mount staining and vibratome thick-sectioning, which avoids the use of equilibration solution such as glycerol or cryoprotectant solutions such as sucrose. It aims to minimize sectioned tissue handling to allow for the maximal preservation of cellular extensions. Reduced handling of the tissue after sectioning provided consistently better results in the overall preservation of cytonemes. Thus, sectioning of the embryo is one of the final steps prior to imaging.
MEM-fix, a fixation technique developed for the preservation of cytonemes of cultured cells, consists of a combination of glutaraldehyde and PFA that allows for improved 3D preservation of the innate cell architecture comparable to their live dimensions16,17. Unfortunately, MEM-fix was not useful for embryo fixation because glutaraldehyde can auto-fluoresce and severely limits antibody penetration and epitope binding in cells due to high protein cross-linking activity22,23. Thus, sectioning protocols post PFA fixation conditions were optimized to allow for the preservation of cellular extensions in embryonic tissue. Although PFA can preserve cytoneme-like extensions in embryonic tissue, image analysis should be performed with caution. PFA can cause partial dehydration of individual cells and tissues, leading to minor volume reduction and the formation of small extracellular spaces within the fixed tissue.
This protocol avoids the extra steps of sucrose resaturation for cryoprotection and tissue clearing because sucrose or glycerol solutions can cause a minor resaturation of the tissue24. The resulting minor swelling can destroy fixed cellular extensions and cytonemes migrating between cells and across tissues. This was evident when comparing thick-sectioned vibratome to cryostat sections. Although increasing tissue thickness improved the preservation of intact cytonemes, the sucrose-resaturated cryostat sections consistently had a lower incidence of detectable cytonemes.
Optimization of this protocol revealed that 100 µm thick sections were the best for ensuring preservation of intact cytonemes. Thinner sections are typically used for imaging because most confocal microscopes are only capable of imaging at sufficient resolution to visualize cellular extensions to a depth of ~20-40 µm without clearing25. However, the mechanical forces and distortion applied to embryonic cells from the blade while cutting thin sections destroys cytonemes. Thicker sections allow for a larger area of depth within the section while preserving intact extensions within the tissue. Additionally, the use of thicker sections allows for ease of handling to prevent excessive folding or buckling of the tissue sections.
This protocol was optimized for the maximum preservation of cytonemes in tissue of E8-10.5 mouse embryos. Minimal manipulation of the tissue after sectioning provided consistently improved overall preservation of cytonemes. It is likely that further optimization will be required to adapt the technique for later developmental stages and adult tissue sections due to increased size and tissue complexity. This will require sectioning followed by immunofluorescence staining. Such tissue may require additional clearing steps and adaptation of tissue handling during sectioning to preserve cytoneme-like extensions. These additional steps will need to be considered and addressed for future applications of this protocol.
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Images were acquired using microscopes maintained by the Cell and Molecular Biology Imaging Core at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. Mouse strains were obtained from JAX. This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grant R35GM122546 (SKO) and by ALSAC of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital.
12-well plate; Nunc Cell-Culture Treated | Thermo Scientific | 150628 (Fisher Scientific 12-565-321) | |
24-Well Plate, Round Nunc | Thermo Fisher Scientific | 142475 | |
60 mm dish | Corning, Falcon | 353004 (Fisher Scientific 08772F) | |
Absorbant towels (Professional Kimtech Science Kimwipes) | Kimberly-Clark KIMTECH | 34155 (Fisher Scientific 06666A) | |
Actin Red 555 ReadyProbes Reagent | Invitrogen | R37112 | |
Alexa Fluor 488 AffiniPure F(ab')2 Fragment Donkey Anti-Chicken IgY (IgG) (H+L) | Jackson Immunoresearch Lab Inc | 703-546-155 | 1:1,000 working concentration |
Bead Bath 6L 230V | Lab Armor | Item #12L048 (Mfr. Model #74220-706) | set to 55 °C |
chicken anti-GFP | Aves Labs | SKU GFP-1020 | 1:250 working concentration |
CO2 chamber | plexiglass chamber connected to a CO2 emitting line. | ||
Confocal laser-scanning microscope | Leica Microsystems | model: Leica TCS SP8 | |
DAPI Solution (1 mg/mL) | Thermo Fisher Scientific | 62248 | |
Dissecting scissors (Vannas Scissors) | World Precision Instruments | 14003 | |
Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium, high glucose, no glutamine | Thermo Fisher Scientific, Gibco | 11960044 | |
Eppendorf Research Plus single channel pipette, 0.1-2.5 µL | Eppendorf | 3123000012 | |
Eppendorf Research Plus single channel pipette, 0.5-10 µL | Eppendorf | 3123000020 | |
Eppendorf Research Plus single channel pipette, 100-1,000 µL | Eppendorf | 3123000063 | |
Eppendorf Research Plus single channel pipette, 20-200 µL | Eppendorf | 3123000055 | |
Feather Disposable Scalpel #10 | Fisher Scientific | Catalog No.NC9999403 | |
Fetal Bovine Serum, certified, United States | Thermo Fisher Scientific, Gibco | 16000044 | |
Fisherbrand Fine Point High Precision Forceps | Fisher Scientific | 22-327379 | |
Fisherbrand Labeling Tape | Fisher Scientific | 15-954 | |
Formaldehyde, 16%, methanol free, Ultra Pure EM Grade | Polysciences | 18814-10 | |
Hank's Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS) | Thermo Fisher Scientific, Gibco | 14025 | |
ImmEdge Hydrophobic Barrier Pap Pen | Vector laboratories | H-4000 | |
Leica Application Suite X (LAS X) with LIGHTNING | Leica Microsystems | Microscope software | |
L-Glutamine (200 mM) | Thermo Fisher Scientific, Gibco | 25030081 | |
Low Melting Point Agarose- UltraPure | Invitrogen | 16520 | |
MEM Non-Essential Amino Acids Solution (100x) | Thermo Fisher Scientific, Gibco | 11140050 | |
Moria MC 17 BIS Perforated Spoon | Fine Science Tools | 1037018 | |
Mounting media (ProLong Diamond Antifade Mountant) | Thermo Fisher Scientific, Invitrogen | P36961 | |
Mouse: B6.129X1(Cg)-Shhtm6Amc/J (ShhGFP/+) | The Jackson Laboratory | Strain #:008466 | |
Mouse: B6.Cg-Shhtm1(EGFP/cre)Cjt/J (Shh-Cre) | The Jackson Laboratory | Strain #:005622 | |
Mouse: C57BL/6J (B6) | The Jackson Laboratory | Strain #:000664 | |
Mouse: Gt(ROSA)26Sortm4(ACTB-tdTomato,-EGFP)Luo/J (Rosa26 mTmG) | The Jackson Laboratory | Strain #:007576 | |
Normal Goat Serum | Jackson ImmunoResearch | 005-000-121 (Fisher Scientific NC9660079) | |
PBS + Ca2+ + Mg2+ | Thermo Fisher Scientific, Gibco | 14040133 | |
Premium Microcentrifuge Tubes: 1.5 mL | Fisher Scientific | 05-408-129 | |
SHARP Precision Barrier Tips, Extra Long for P-10 and Eppendorf 10 µL | Denville Scientific | P1096-FR | |
SHARP Precision Barrier Tips, For P-1000 and Eppendorf 1,000, 1,250 µL | Denville Scientific | P1126 | |
SHARP Precision Barrier Tips, For P-20 and Eppendorf 20 µL | Denville Scientific | P1121 | |
SHARP Precision Barrier Tips, For P-200 and Eppendorf 200 µL | Denville Scientific | P1122 | |
Sodium Azide | Sigma-Aldrich | S8032 | |
Sodium Pyruvate (100 mM) (100x) | Thermo Fisher Scientific, Gibco | 11360070 | |
Super Glue | Gorilla | ||
SuperFrost Plus microscope slides | Fisher Scientific | 12-550-15 | |
TPP centrifuge tubes, volume 15 mL, polypropylene | TPP Techno Plastic Products | 91015 | |
TPP centrifuge tubes, volume 50 mL, polypropylene | TPP Techno Plastic Products | 91050 | |
Transfer pipette, polyethylene | Millipore Sigma | Z135003 | |
Triton X-100 | Sigma-Aldrich | T9284 | |
Tween-20 | Sigma-Aldrich | P1379 | |
Vari-Mix Platform Rocker | Thermo Fisher Scientific | 09-047-113Q | set to 20 RPM |
Vibratome | Leica Biosytems | VT1000 S |