Learning involves acquiring knowledge or skills through practice, experience, or observation.
The results seen after learning are relatively permanent …
Associative learning occurs when a connection is made between two stimuli or events. For example, a child may learn to clean their room regularly if they …
While studying dogs' digestive systems, Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered that behaviors can be learned through association.
He noticed …
Classical conditioning has real-world applications dependent on the conditioning order.
Higher-order or second-order conditioning occurs when a neutral …
Classical conditioning can explain several commonly observed behaviors in daily life.
Watson and Rayner observed that pairing a white rat with a loud …
Operant conditioning involves reinforcing or punishing behavior to alter its likelihood.
For example, praising a child for completing homework exemplifies …
B. F. Skinner built the theory of operant conditioning on the concept of the law of effect, proposed by Edward Thorndike.
Thorndike placed a hungry cat in …
Reinforcement can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement adds something desirable, and negative reinforcement removes something undesirable.
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Negative reinforcement and punishment serve distinct functions in behavior modification.
Negative reinforcement improves the desired behavior by removing …
Shaping is a method in operant conditioning where successive approximations of a target behavior are rewarded.
For instance, an individual learns to write …
Primary reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities that are not learned.
For humans, primary reinforcers include food, sleep, affection, and shelter, …
Continuous reinforcement, like giving a dog a treat every time it sits in a place, reinforces the sitting behavior.
Conversely, partial reinforcement …
Cognitive learning includes purposive behavior, incidental learning, and insight learning.
Tolman proposed that behavior is goal-directed and must be …
Tolman emphasized that behavior is often purposive or goal-directed. For instance, an employee working towards a promotion consistently puts in extra …
Modeling involves four key steps.
The first step is attention. Consider a yoga session in which the instructor shows all the participants how to perform …
Phobias such as darkness, heights, deep water, and blood are common among people and often occur without any prior frightening experiences.
Evolution …
Instinctive drift refers to the tendency of animals to revert to their innate behaviors despite repeated reinforcement.
Breland and Breland conducted an …
Metacognition is a conscious process where individuals are aware of their cognitive processes and executive functioning.
For example, a writer reflecting …
Learning disabilities (LDs) encompass disorders of those who have difficulty learning and using academic skills, exhibiting performance below expectations …
This protocol describes a new paradigm for analyzing aversive associative learning in adult flies (Drosophila melanogaster). The paradigm is analogous to …
The Evoked Potential Operant Conditioning System (EPOCS) is a software tool that implements protocols for operantly conditioning stimulus-triggered muscle …