Indirect Fabrication of Lattice Metals with Thin Sections Using Centrifugal Casting
Summary
An indirect additive manufacturing method combining a 3D printing of polymers with a centrifugal casting is outlined for manufacturing 3D octet truss metals (Al and Cu alloys) having a unit cell length of 5 mm with a wall thickness of 0.5 mm.
Abstract
One of the typical methods to manufacture 3D lattice metals is the direct-metal additive manufacturing (AM) process such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM) and Electron Beam Melting (EBM). In spite of its potential processing capability, the direct AM method has several disadvantages such as high cost, poor surface finish of final products, limitation in material selection, high thermal stress, and anisotropic properties of parts. We propose a cost-effective method to manufacture 3D lattice metals. The objective of this study is to provide a detailed protocol on fabrication of 3D lattice metals having a complex shape and a thin wall thickness; e.g., octet truss made of Al and Cu alloys having a unit cell length of 5 mm and a cell wall thickness of 0.5 mm. An overall experimental procedure is divided into eight sections: (a) 3D printing of sacrificial patterns (b) melt-out of support materials (c) removal of residue of support materials (d) pattern assembly (e) investment (f) burn-out of sacrificial patterns (g) centrifugal casting (h) post-processing for final products. The suggested indirect AM technique provides the potential to manufacture ultra-lightweight lattice metals; e.g., lattice structures with Al alloys. It appears that the process parameters should be properly controlled depending on materials and lattice geometry, observing the final products of octet truss metals by the indirect AM technique.
Introduction
Cellular metals are the metals made up of an interconnected network of solid struts or plates and have complex micro-architectures with voids1. Examples include both i) randomly structured stochastic foams and ii) periodically ordered two-dimensional (2D) honeycombs and three-dimensional (3D) lattice truss structures. They have received attention due to their high specific stiffness and strength1-3and high specific resilience4-5, excellent energy absorption for impact loading6, acoustic insulation7, possible design of heat dissipaters and heat exchangers8. Especially, periodically ordered lattice structures have the potential to engineer the properties superior with a capability to control the internal porous network geometry.
Due to their complex internal porous network geometry, it is difficult to manufacture cellular metals using the conventional subtractive machining. As such, researchers have started looking for alternative methods to fabricate cellular metals: forming gas in liquid metal or mixing metal powder with blowing agents were explored for manufacturing stochastic metal forms9. Due to the lack of control over cell topology, it is hard to tailor mechanical properties. Alternatively, manufacturing methods for periodically ordered cellular metals were explored: stamping thin sheets of metal into a corrugated shape followed by joining them to create periodic structures10, bonding slotted metal sheets11, extrusion12, weaving and blazing metal filaments to fabricate textiles13. Even though these manufacturing methods offer repeatable patterns, the patterns are still limited in the planar direction. In an effort to generate 3D pattern repetition, researchers started using additive manufacturing (AM); e.g., Selective Laser Melting (SLM)14, Electron Beam Melting (EBM)15, and Direct-Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)16. Despite their capability to fabricate 3D ordered complex lattice geometries, there still exist some limitations: difficulty using metals with high thermal conductivity and high optical reflectivity17, high thermal residual stress18, poor surface finish with the 'balling' phenomenon during laser or electron melting 19, anisotropic properties20-21 of parts caused by a combined effect of the layered manufacturing, anisotropic formation of grains, powder size, power and scanning speed of laser or electron beam15, high energy consumption, etc.
Combining polymer based AM with metal casting may provide an alternative method to manufacture lattice metals. One may call this "indirect AM". Indirect AM may provide a solution to overcome the technical problems of direct AM of metals mentioned above. Several efforts have been made to manufacture lattice metals using indirect AM combining 3D printing of polymers with gravity based casting22-25; e.g., an investment casting combined with fused deposition modeling (FDM) to fabricate a lattice alloy22-25 or sand casting combined with a sand powder based AM23. The gravity based casting appears to remain a technical challenge to overcome – misrun and porosity caused by sudden solidification of molten metals when they meet network structures with sharp corners of lattice structural molds25-26. Relatively large surface area of lattice structural molds also appears to contribute to sudden cooling, resulting in premature solidification25-26.
In this study, we propose an alternative indirect AM that may overcome the misrun during manufacturing of lattice metals – centrifugal casting to a lattice mold cavity made by a 3D printed lattice sacrificial polymer pattern. We use a digital light processing (DLP) based 3D printing method to build a lattice structural sacrificial pattern followed by centrifugal casting of Al and Cu alloys. The objective of this study is to provide a detailed protocol on fabrication of 3D lattice metals having a complex shape and a thin wall thickness. The main contribution of this process is to provide an opportunity to extend the selection of materials with low manufacturing cost for manufacturing lattice metals.
Protocol
Representative Results
Discussion
For conventional metal casting, it is important to keep the molten metal's flow smooth and streamlined in 'laminar' in the mold cavity and rather avoid irregular and agitated flow generally observed in turbulent flow27. Accordingly, it is important to properly design the inlet of the sprue system associated with the rotating speed of a centrifugal arm to maintain the flow of molten metal inside the lattice mold cavity 'laminar'.
In this study, the critical steps …
Disclosures
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
This study received support from the Research Initiation Grant (RIG) of the Vice President for Research and Economic Development at the University of North Texas (UNT). The authors also thank KCIS Co. Ltd for partially supporting this study. The support from PACCAR Technology Institute at UNT to the success of this publication is greatly appreciated.
Materials
| Motorized centrifugal casting machine | Rey Motorized Centrifugal Casting Machine, Rey Industries Inc. | Made in U.S.A. by Rey industries, Inc. Dallas, TX 75220 | |
| Gypsum powder | Satin Cast 20, FindingKing Kerr | 7960 | Gypsum powder is used to make the investment mixture |
| Ployjet 3D printer | Projet HD3500 Plus, 3D Systems | This polymer based 3D printer to print out sacrificial pattern for casting. | |
| Cartridge materials – UV curable and castable acrylic plastic | VisiJet Procast, 3D Systems | This is castable material that is going to be burn out before casting | |
| Cartridge materials- support material | VijiJet S300, 3D Systems | This is support material that is going to be removed before pattern assemble | |
| Ancient Bronze Casting Grain | Rio Grande | 706051 | This true bronze grain contains no zinc. Highly fluid, it melts quickly, casts cleanly and provides a good balance between strength and durability. The warm, deep-bronze color has rich red undertones, and the alloy takes a good patina. Composition is 90% copper with an amount of tin; fits into the CDA#90700 category. This grain is sold in 1-lb. packages. |
| Aluminum Round Wire, 1/8", 1-Lb. Spool, Dead Soft | Rio Grande | 134700 | Lightweight and strong, aluminum wire is an economical and versatile choice. Not as bright-white as silver, aluminum offers a warmer tone much like that of platinum. Solder ONLY with low-temp solders such as Stay-Brite; suitable for both pulse-arc and laser welding. This quality aluminum wire is packaged on 1-lb. spools. |
| Computer aided design software (Pro-e) | This software can be replaced with the others such as Auto CAD, Catia, and so on. | ||
| ProJet Finisher 1-A | 3D Systems | This machine is used to melt the support material. | |
| 160 Watt 2.5 Liters Digital Ultrasonic Cleaner with Timer Heater Rings Tools | Chicago, Electric, Power Tools | 85 oz. capacity, Five cleaning cycles: 90, 180, 280, 380 and 480 seconds, Clean with or without heat, Easy-to-read LED digital timer, Clear-view window | |
| Fan | Honeywell Inc. | HT-800 | 120V A.C., 60Hz., 0.85A. TP |
| Paraffin wax for wax sheet – Modeler's Pink Wax Sheet, 3" by 6", 24-Ga. | Rio Grande | 700075 | Sheet wax is flexible and can be cut or formed into any shape. It’s ideal for designing since you can draw or trace directly onto the sheet; choose green or pink depending on which will best show your designs. High manufacturing standards ensure exceptional consistency and significant price savings. Value is enhanced by larger package quantities at the same price as the smaller packages available elsewhere. Each 8-oz. package contains approximately 30 sheets. |
| Paraffin wax for wax stick – Modeler's Medium Red Sprue Wax, 8-Ga | Rio Grande | 700741 | A pliable, softer sprue wax than the firm blue. Good for forming gates and sprues and burns out cleanly with no residue. |
| Alcohol Lamp | Rio Grande | 700008 | Use this lamp to heat wax-working tools or as a flame polisher. The heavy glass reservoir has faceted sides to allow it to be tipped for angling the flame. A screw adjustment for the 7" x 3/16" wick controls the height of the flame. A safety cap snuffs the flame and prevents fuel evaporation. For the best flame, use methyl alcohol fuel. Replacement wicks available. Reservoir holds 5 oz. (150ml) of fuel. |
| Wax carving tool set – Soft Grip Wax Carvers, Set of 10 | Rio Grande | 700329 | This boxed set offers the best in cutting and shaping technology. Each of these ten high-quality steel wax-carving tools features a 5/16" PVC covered handle that ensures a sure, comfortable grip through hours of work and all have sharp edges for shaping and fine detailing. Sharpen or custom-shape each tool to fit your needs. These tools provide exceptional tool strength and deliver excellent results. This set comes in a hinged, foam-lined wood box. |
| Rubber Mixing Bowl, 1-1/2 Qt. | Rio Grande | 702131 | This highly-flexible vulcanized rubber bowl is easy to grip, will not be marred by a spatula and cleans with ease. |
| Pyrex Beaker, 1,000ml | Rio Grande | 335040 | Ideal for holding and heating bath plating solutions, this genuine Pyrex glass beaker is sturdy and durable. |
| Rio Premium Stainless Steel Flask, 2-1/2" dia. | Rio Grande | 70201514 | This solid, #304-quality stainless steel flask is corrosion-resistant, durable for a long service life and performs under extreme temperature without distortion. |
| CAST/T Ceramic Casting Crucible, 450g | Rio Grande | 705047 | Made exclusively for the CAST/T centrifugal casting machine, this crucible is designed with an angled base that slides into the hinged bracket on top of the casting machine. This brings the crucible into perfect alignment with the center of the flask ring to ensure an error-free pour. |
| MyWeigh iBalance 300 Digital Scale | Rio Grande | 116850 | This scale is used to measure the weight of the sacrificial and sprue system for metal which is going to be used for centrifugal casting. |
| Rubber bottom – CAST/T Flask Ring Base | Rio Grande | 705025 | Specially made for the CAST/T centrifugal casting machine, this rubber base accommodates all Table King flask ring styles, creating a secure, airtight seal throughout the investment process. The center post fits either of the wax disc styles for complete versatility. |
| Scotch® Colored Duct Tape, 1 7/8" x 20 Yd., Blue | OfficeMax | 22353766 | This scotch tape is used to make sure that the gypsum-water mixture fully covers the assembled sacrificial pattern inside the flask by allowing for extra material above the flask height |
| Vacuum casting machine – V.I.C. 12 Tabletop Solid- and Perforated-Flask Casting Machine with The Rio Assistant, 110-Volt | Rio Grande | 70511814 | The V.I.C. 12 casting machine offers all the latest technical innovations for efficient, productive vacuum investing and casting. Designed to meet the demands of medium-sized casting operations, this machine includes a powerful 1/2hp, 5cfm vacuum pump for effective vacuuming and outstanding casting results. The V.I.C. 12 casts small or large flasks. Includes an adapter table that accepts standard solid flasks up to 5" x 7" high and is mounted on rubber feet for stability. |
| Furnace for burn out sacrificial pattern -Rio Model 1000 Enameling Kiln with Nine Program Controller | Rio Grande | 703121 | The Rio enameling kiln features three pre-set firing temperatures for enamels and six that you can define. Use the exclusive Rio controller to set and maintain firing temperatures. Perfect for all types of enameling, including tall pieces. Includes ample space for firing and an easy-latch door that will not jar your enamels when opening and closing. Also suitable for metal clay, glass and ceramics. Galvanized steel case with high-temperature insulating firebrick keeps them cool. Element protected in recessed groove. Includes user instructions. |
| Smith Complete Little Torch Acetylene and Oxygen System | Rio Grande | 500030 | Get everything you need to equip your shop for soldering and brazing. Use Little Torch systems for gold or silver soldering, brazing and casting applications. Complete every soldering and melting job with confidence and ease! This system accepts all Little Torch accessory tips for melting, brazing and large soldering jobs and is a staple for every jeweler. |
| Heat-Resistant Safety Apron | Rio Grande | 750160 | The specially designed apron has an 800°F (427°C) temperature resistance. Its reflective finish repels hot metal splashes and helps insulate the wearer from heat. |
| Radnor Heat-Resistant Gloves | Rio Grande | 350050 | These flexible, heat-resistant gloves are ideal for enameling projects, allowing you to grip even small tongs securely. Blue, shoulder-split leather gloves are made of tough cowhide and lined with cotton and foam, and have reinforced thumb wings. |
| Platinum Soldering Glasses, #7 | Rio Grande | 113914 | Protect yourself and your employees when soldering platinum. Comfortable glasses feature adjustable earpieces and 52mm IR green polycarbonate #7 lenses. The #7 lens is approved by The Platinum Guild. |
| Economy Light-Duty Flask Tongs | Rio Grande | 704026 | Constructed of bent steel, these tongs are designed to handle flasks 3-1/2" or less in diameter. The small-angle notches grip smaller flask sizes and the larger, rounded contour area securely holds larger flasks. |
| Separating Screen Bucket | Rio Grande | 201360 | 15"-diameter, 11-1/2"-deep |
| Sand blaster – Econoline – 101701CB-A – Free-Standing Cabinets Workspace Width (Inch): 60 Workspace Depth (Inch): 48 | MSC industrial supply Co. | 223818 | Ree-Standing Cabinets; Workspace Width (Inch): 60; Workspace Depth (Inch): 48; Workspace Height (Inch): 40; Air Requirement: 12 CFM @ 80 psi; Overall Cabinet Width (Inch): 65; Maximum Cabinet Depth (Inch): 86 |
| Johnson's Baby Oil Shea & Cocoa Butter | Wal-Mart | 260074132 | This baby oil is used for removing the residue of the support material for the castable sacrificial pattern using Digital Ultrasonic Cleaner. |
| German 4" Saw Frame and Saw Blade Kit | Rio Grande | 110112 | Quality, German-made frames are our most popular saw frames, and this frame includes a sampler pack of Rio German saw blades! The adjustable saw frame allows you to achieve the blade tension you want. Throat depth is 102mm (4"). Saw blades have rounded backs that make cutting curves and corners easy and are made from hardened, tempered steel. |
References
- Gibson, L. J., Ashby, M. F. . Cellular Solids-Structure and properties. , (1997).
- Schaedler, T. A., et al. Ultralight Metallic Microlattices. J. Science. 334 (6058), 962-965 (2011).
- Zheng, X., et al. Ultrastiff Mechanical Metamaterials. J. Science. 334 (6190), 1373-1377 (2014).
- Ju, J., Summers, J. D., Ziegert, J., Fadel, G. Design of Honeycombs for Modulus and Yield Strain in Shear. J. Eng. Mater. & Technol. 134 (1), 11-22 (2012).
- Lee, J., Kim, K., Ju, J., Kim, D. M. Compliant Cellular Materials with Elliptical Holes: Materials Design with Mechanisms. Transactions of the ASME: Eng. Maters. & Technol. 131 (1), 1-14 (2015).
- Tan, H., Qu, S. Chap 6: Impact of Cellular Materials. Cellular and Porous Materials in Structures and Processes. , (2010).
- Phani, A. S., Woodhouse, J., Fleck, N. A. Wave Propagation in Two-Dimensional Periodic Lattices. Acoust. Soc. A. 119 (4), 1995-2005 (2006).
- Kumar, R. S., McDowell, D. L. Rapid Preliminary Design of Rectangular Linear Cellular Alloys for Maximum Heat Transfer. AIAA. 42 (8), 1652-1661 (2004).
- Banhart, J., Weaire, D. On the Road Again: Metal Foams Find Favor. Physics Today. 55 (7), 37-42 (2002).
- Wadley, H. N. G., Fleck, N. A., Evans, A. Fabrication and Structural Performance of Periodic Cellular Metal Sandwich Structures. Comp. Sci. and Technol. 63, 2331-2343 (2003).
- Mori, L. F., et al. Deformation and Fracture Modes of Sandwich Structures Subjected to Underwater Impulsive Loads. Mech. of Mater. & Struct. 2 (10), 1981-2006 (2007).
- Queheillalt, D. T., Murty, Y., Wadley, H. N. G. Mechanical Properties of an Extruded Pyramidal Lattice Truss Sandwich Structure. Scripta Materialia. 58 (1), 76-79 (2008).
- Queheillalt, D. T., Desphande, V. S., Wadley, H. N. G. Truss Waviness Effects in Cellular Lattice Structures. Mech. of Mater. & Struct. 2 (9), 1657-1675 (2007).
- Mullen, L., Stamp, R. C., Brooks, W. K., Jones, E., Sutcliffe, C. J. Selective Laser Melting: A Regular Unit Cell Approach for the Manufacture of Porous, Titanium, Bone In-Growth Constructs, Suitable for Orthopedic Applications. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B: Appl. Biomaterials. 89, 325-334 (2009).
- Murr, L. E., et al. Next-Generation Biomedical Implants using Additive Manufacturing of Complex, Cellular and Functional Mesh Arrays. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A. 368, 1999-2032 (2011).
- Murali, K., et al. Direct Selective Laser Sintering of Iron-Graphite Powder Mixture. Mater. Proc. Technol. 136, 179-185 (2003).
- Lott, P., et al. Design of an Optical System for the In-Situ Process Monitoring of Selective Laser Melting (SLM). Ph. P. 12, 683-690 (2011).
- Song, B., Dong, S., Liu, Q., Liao, H., Coddet, C. Vacuum Heat Treatment of Iron Parts Produced by Selective Laser Melting: Microstructure, Residual Stress, and Tensile Behavior. Mater. Design. 54, 727-733 (2014).
- Yadroitsev, I., Smurov, I. Surface Morphology in Selective Laser Melting of Metal Powders. Ph. P. 12, 264-270 (2011).
- Antonysamy, A. A., Meyer, J., Prangnell, P. B. Effect of Build Geometry on the β-grain Structure and Texture in Additive Manufacture of Ti-6Al-4V by Selective Election Beam Melting. J. of Mat. Charact. 84, 153-168 (2013).
- Ladani, L. Local and Global Mechanical Behavior and Microstructure of Ti6Al4V Parts Built Using Electron Beam Melting Technology. J. of Metalllur. & Mater. Trans. 46, (2015).
- Chiras, S., et al. The Structural Performance of Near-Optimized Truss Core Panels. Solids Struct. 39, 4093-4115 (2002).
- Meisel, N. A., Williams, C. B., Druschitz, A. Lightweight Metal Celluar Structures via in Direct 3D Printing and Casting. Proceedings of the 24th Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium. , (2013).
- Mun, J., Ju, J., Yun, B. -. G., Chang, B. -. M., Kim, D. -. M. A Numerical Study of Molten Aluminum for Investment Casting of 3D Cellular Metals. Proceedings of the ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. , (2013).
- Mun, J., Yun, B. -. G., Ju, J., Chang, B. -. M. Indirect Additive Manufacturing Based Casting of a Periodic 3D Cellular Metal – Flow Simulation of Molten Aluminum Alloy. Manufact. Process. 17, 28-40 (2015).
- Challapalli, A., Ju, J. Continuum Model for Effective Properties of Orthotropic Octet-Truss Lattice Materials. Proceedings of the ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. , (2014).
- Taylor, H. F., Flemings, M. C., Wulff, J. . Foundry Engineering. , (1959).
- Mun, J., Ju, J., Thurman, J. Indirect Additive Manufacturing Based Casting (I AM Casting) of a Lattice Structure. Proceedings of the ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. , (2014).
- Mun, J., Ju, J., Thurman, J. Indirect Additive Manufacturing of a Copper Alloy Cubic Lattice Structure. Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium. , (2014).
- . Volume 2 Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals. Metals Handbook Ninth Edition. , (1979).
- Romano, J., Ladani, L., Razmi, J., Sadowski, M. Temperature Distribution and Melt Geometry in Laser and Electron-beam Melting Processes – A Comparison Among Common Materials. J. of Additive Manuf. 8, 1-11 (2015).
