Parasympathetic signaling plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes. It involves the release of acetylcholine (ACh) by parasympathetic neurons, which can have localized and short-lived effects. The majority of ACh released is rapidly inactivated at the synapse by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which hydrolyzes Ach into choline and acetate. Additionally, the tissue cholinesterase deactivates any ACh diffusing into the surrounding tissues.
The effects of parasympathetic stimulation are tightly controlled and depend on the specific receptors involved, allowing for precise modulation of target organs and tissues. There are two main types of cholinergic receptors: nicotinic and muscarinic receptors.
Nicotinic Receptors
Nicotinic receptors are found on postganglionic cells of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions and at neuromuscular junctions in the somatic nervous system. Activation of these receptors by ACh leads to the opening of chemically gated sodium (Na+) channels in the postsynaptic membrane of the postganglionic neuron or motor end plate of the muscle fiber. This excitation results in the activation of the respective cell.
Muscarinic Receptors
Muscarinic receptors are found at cholinergic neuromuscular or neuroglandular junctions in the parasympathetic division and a few cholinergic junctions in the sympathetic division. Muscarinic receptors are G protein-coupled receptors, and their stimulation and subsequent activation of G proteins produce longer-lasting effects than nicotinic receptors. The response elicited can be either excitatory or inhibitory, depending on the activation or inactivation of specific enzymes.
