An experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model in mice was employed to investigate the role of CD4 T cells in the initial and relapse of EAE from the perspective of the activation phase and immune effect function.
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease characterized by the infiltration of immune cells and demyelination in the central nervous system (CNS). Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) serves as a prototypic animal model for studying MS. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role of CD4 T cells in the initiation and relapse of EAE, focusing on the activation phase and immune response. To create the EAE mice model, female mice were immunized with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)35-55 emulsified with complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). Clinical scores were assessed daily, and results demonstrated that mice in the EAE group exhibited a classic relapsing-remitting pattern. Hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) and luxol fast blue (LFB) staining analysis revealed significant infiltration of inflammatory cells in the CNS and demyelination in EAE mice. Regarding the activation phase, both CD4+CD69+ effector T (Teff) cells and CD4+CD44+CD62L– effector memory T (Tem) cells may contribute to the initiation of EAE, however, the relapse stage was probably dominated by CD4+CD44+CD62L– Tem cells. Additionally, in terms of immune function, helper T (Th)1 cells are primarily involved in initiating the EAE. However, both Th1 and Th17 cells contribute to the relapse stage, and the immunosuppressive function of regulatory T (Treg) cells was inhibited during the EAE pathological process.
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease that is characterized by the infiltration of the central nervous system (CNS) with immune cells and demyelination1,2. A recent study has shown it to be the most common disabling disease affecting young people, with its incidence continuously increasing worldwide3. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a prototypic animal model for MS that simulates many aspects of the inflammatory phase of the human MS4. From the perspective of immune functions, the initial CD4 T cells that have not yet encountered antigens are referred to as helper T(Th) 0 cells. These cells undergo maturation and activation processes to exhibit various functions. CD4 T cells can be categorized into several subsets according to their specific functions, which include Th1, Th2, regulatory T (Treg), follicular helper T (Tfh), Th17, Th9, and Th22 cells5. It is a common consensus that Th1 and Th17 cell subtypes are crucial pathogenesis factors of EAE6. Th1 cells could secrete interferon γ (IFN-γ), and Th17 cells secrete interleukin (IL)-17 and other inflammatory factors, which could activate other immune cells like microglial cells and astrocytes. These cells produce inflammatory cytokines7, such as IL-18, IL-12, IL-23, and IL-1β, which could further induce Th1/Th17 cells' immune response, resulting in progressive demyelination and axonal damage. From the activation phase perspective, CD4 T cells possess a predetermined destiny to develop into distinct cell subsets and differentiated states, including naive, effector, and memory T cells8. The initial CD4 T cells proliferate and differentiate into a variety of effector subsets with different functions in different environments9. Most effector cells are short-lived, with a small population of T cells developing into memory T cells that exhibit rapid effector functions when re-encountering the same antigens and provide the host with highly potent and long-term protection10,11.
Although current research suggests that CD4 T cells play a significant role in the development of EAE, it is still unclear how different CD4 T cell subsets, classified based on their activation phase and immune effect function, contribute to the initiation and relapse of EAE. In the present study, we established the EAE model in C57BL6/J mice by immunizing myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)35-55 peptide and investigated the initiation and relapse of EAE, focusing on the activation phase and immune function of CD4 T cells.
A total of 18 female C57BL/6J mice aged six to eight weeks were randomly divided into a control group (n = 6) and an EAE group (n = 12) for this study. Mice were purchased from the experiment animal center of Ningxia Medical University. Mice were housed in a temperature- and humidity-controlled room with a 12 h light/dark cycle, and free access to fresh water and food. Ethics approval was obtained from the Experimental Animal Ethics Committee of Ningxia Medical University before the study began.
1. Development of relapsing remitting EAE in C57BL/6 mice
2. Histological staining analysis
3. LFB staining analysis
4. Flow cytometry analysis
5. Analysis of cytokines by cytometric bead array
Clinical scores assessment
As shown in Figure 1, the mice in the control group did not exhibit any clinical symptoms. The mice in the EAE group, which were immunized with MOG35-55, showed tail paralysis approximately 12 days after immunization. By day 16, the symptoms reached complete hind limb paralysis (defined as peak stage, Peak). After that, the symptoms gradually were remitted. Mice's clinical symptoms were aggravated at around day 25 and reached complete hind limb paralysis at approximately day 30 (defined as a relapsing stage, RR). Notably, the symptoms lasted longer than the previous time, which developed a classical relapsing-remitting feature. The principal manifestation of relapsing-remitting EAE mice experience different stages of outbreak, remission, and relapse during the progression of the disease, which have a certain periodicity and fluctuation.
Histological analysis
The control group mice displayed intact brain tissue structure with evenly distributed and clearly defined blood vessels, without any inflammatory cell infiltration. (Figure 2A). At the peak stage of the EAE group mice, a significant infiltration of inflammatory cells was observed in the brain (Figure 2B), forming cuff-like changes around blood vessels (indicated by red arrow). Similarly, in EAE group mice at the RR stage, there was evident infiltration of inflammatory cells (Figure 2C), with a predominant aggregation around blood vessels (indicated by red arrow).
LFB staining analysis
In the control group, the myelin sheath of the spinal white matter appeared blue, indicating that its structure was intact and tightly packed (Figure 3A). At the peak stage of the EAE group, the spinal white matter exhibited a light blue or white color; the structure appeared to be loose and discontinuous, with a significant presence of vacuolar degenerations indicated by a red arrow (Figure 3B). In the RR stage of the EAE model group, extensive loss of white matter myelin in the spinal cord was observed. The structure appeared to be loose, and a significant number of vacuolar degenerations could be observed (indicated by red arrows; Figure 3C).
Flow cytometry assay
The results depicted in Figure 4A,B demonstrated a significant increase in the proportion of CD4+CD69+ Teff cells in EAE mice at the peak stage when compared to the control group (P < 0.0001). Additionally, the proportion of these cells also increased during the RR stage, although the difference was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Figure 4C,D revealed a notable rise in the proportion of CD4+CD44+CD62L– Tem cells in EAE mice at both the peak and RR stages, as compared to the control group (P < 0.0001).
Cytokine measured by cytometric bead array
The results depicted in Figure 5 demonstrate that, when compared to the control group, the levels of IL-4 (P < 0.0001), IL-6 (P < 0.001), IFN-γ (P < 0.0001), and TNF-α (P < 0.0001) were significantly elevated in the EAE group at the peak stage. While the expression of IL-17A also increased, the difference was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Moreover, the level of IL-2 exhibited no change during the peak stage of EAE mice (P > 0.05); however, it significantly increased during the RR stage (P < 0.01). Furthermore, both TNF-α (P < 0.001) and IL-17A (P < 0.01) expressions in the RR stage were significantly higher than those observed in the control group. Conversely, the expression of IL-10 in the EAE group was significantly lower than that in the control group, both at the peak and RR stages (P < 0.0001).
Figure 1: Clinical score assessment. The clinical score was assessed daily and shows that mice developed a classical relapsing-remitting EAE immunized by MOG35-55. (A) The diagram of symptom progression of the EAE mice. (B) The assessment of EAE mice through mean clinical scores. Data are expressed as mean ± SEM, n = 6. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA with post-hoc comparisons to assess statistically significant differences. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001, **** P < 0.0001. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 2: Microscopic map of brain H&E staining. (A) Mice brain in the control group. (B) EAE mice brain in peak stage. Inflammatory cells were infiltrated in the brain at the peak stage in EAE group mice and distributed around blood vessels to form cuff-like change (red arrow). (C) EAE mice brain in RR stage. Inflammatory cells in EAE group mice of RR stage aggregated around blood vessels (red arrow). Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 3: Microscopic map of myelin sheath LFB staining. (A) Mice myelin sheath in the control group. (B) EAE mice myelin sheath in peak stage. The spinal white matter was light blue or white, the structure was loose and discontinuous, and a large number of vacuolar degenerations appeared (red arrow). (C) EAE mice myelin sheath in RR stage. The white matter myelin of the spinal cord was widely lost, the structure was loose, and a large number of vacuolar degenerations appeared (red arrow). Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 4: Immunization by MOG35-55 induced the up-regulation of CD4 Teff and Tem cells proportion in both peak and RR stage in EAE mice. (A) Illustrative flow plot displaying the immunostaining of CD4+CD69+ cells. (B) Percentage of CD4+CD69+ Teff cells. (C) Illustrative flow plot displaying the immunostaining of CD44+CD62L+ cells (gate on CD4 T cells). (D) Percentage of CD44+CD62L+ Tm cells. Data are expressed as mean ± SEM, n = 5. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA with post-hoc comparisons to assess statistically significant differences. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001, **** P < 0.0001. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 5: Level of cytokines in mice brain analyzed by cytometric bead array. Data are expressed as mean ± SEM, n = 3. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA with post-hoc comparisons to assess statistically significant differences. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001, **** P < 0.0001. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Tube label | Concentration(pg/mL) | Cytokine Standard dilution |
1 | 0 (negative control) | no standard dilution(Assay Diluent only) |
2 | 20 | 1:256 |
3 | 40 | 1:128 |
4 | 80 | 1:64 |
5 | 156 | 1:32 |
6 | 312.6 | 1:16 |
7 | 625 | 1:8 |
8 | 1250 | 1:4 |
9 | 2500 | 1:2 |
10 | 5000 | Top standard |
Table 1: List of cytokine standard dilutions to the control tubes.
MS is the most prevalent autoimmune demyelinating disease of the CNS, which affects millions of people worldwide17. EAE is the typical animal model for simulating the clinical pathological features of MS18. Studies have demonstrated that individuals with MS experience cognitive impairment and other disabilities due to the degeneration of axons and neurons in the CNS19,20,21. At the peak and RR stage of the EAE model, mice exhibited paralysis in their tails and hindlimbs. Additionally, inflammatory cells were observed to infiltrate into the CNS, leading to varying degrees of myelin sheath loss. These findings indicated the successful establishment of the EAE model in this experiment.
The emulsification process of MOG35-55 and CFA needs to be conducted on ice to prevent the degradation of MOG35-55 caused by heat generation during the homogenization process. PTX is administered intraperitoneally to enhance vascular permeability, allowing T cells to easily cross the blood-brain barrier and reach the myelin sheath surrounding neurons22. What calls for special attention is that in cases where mice become paralyzed and cannot stand to eat or drink by themselves, it is important to provide food and water trays in their cage or manually feed them to prevent excessive thirst and hunger.
Flow cytometry was used to analyze the proportion of CD4+CD69+ Teff cells and CD4+CD44+CD62L– Tem cells. The proportion of CD4+CD69+ Teff cells in the spleen of EAE mice was remarkably up regulated in the peak stage. Additionally, it was higher than that of the control group in the relapse stage, although this difference did not reach statistical significance. On the other hand, the proportion of CD4+CD44+CD62L– Tem cells were significantly higher in the EAE mice compared to the control group at both the peak and RR stage. This suggested that the initiation of EAE might involve both CD4+CD69+ Teff and CD4+CD44+CD62L– Tem cells in the peak stage, while the RR stage is perhaps primarily dominated by CD4+CD44+CD62L– Tem cells. CD69 is the earliest membrane surface molecule expressed during lymphocyte activation. It plays a crucial role in modulating the adhesion and migration of T cells, thereby aiding immune cells in identifying and localizing infection or inflammation sites within the body23. Resting T cells do not express CD69, but when they are stimulated and activated by anti-CD3/TCR activators can be inductively expressed24. After the effector stage, a significant portion of T cells undergo apoptosis since they are unable to differentiate any further. This reduction in numbers is primarily caused by the absence of pro-survival cytokines, including IL-2, which are produced during antigen stimulation. Additionally, the downregulation of receptors for these cytokines further contributes to this clonal contraction phenomenon25. In addition, clearance of the infectious agent through an adaptive immune response leads to clonal contraction of T cells, ultimately leaving fewer long-lived memory cells to provide immune response to the host in the event of reinfection with the pathogen26. In the present study, the proportion of CD4+CD69+ T cells was remarkably elevated at peak stage however declined at the RR stage, which indicated that CD4 Teff cells are unable to survive for a extent period and ultimately undergo apoptosis, only a small fraction of antigen-specific T cells develop into long-lived memory T cells. Tem cells have a low expression of CD62L. However, they are capable of expressing some chemokine receptors and adhesion molecules that facilitate their migration to inflamed tissues. After antigen reactivation, the proliferation rate is relatively slow, but cytokines are rapidly released to initiate effector function27. In the present study, the antigens in mice released from the emulsion and attacked the immune system again, Tem cells can be reactivated and release a large number of cytokines, such as IL-6 and IFN-γ, which may result in the relapse of EAE mice.
The primary pro-inflammatory CD4 T cell populations associated with autoimmune diseases (including MS) are Th1 cells that secrete IL-2, IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and Th17 cells that secrete IL-17. It has been demonstrated that Th1 cell-associated IFN-γ can have a direct detrimental effect on oligodendrocytes, resulting in damage to the patient's CNS neurons28. Th17 cells also play a significant role in several autoimmune diseases, including MS. Research has observed elevated levels of Th17 cells and IL-17 mRNA in brain lesions of MS patients when compared to individuals without the disease29. Treg cells, which are characterized by the production of IL-10 and TGF-β30, have an immunosuppressive effect and play a crucial role in maintaining immune system tolerance to self-components, thereby enabling the body to maintain immune homeostasis. Here we observed significant up-regulation of IL-4, IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α expression in the EAE group at the peak stage. Additionally, the expression of IL-17A was also increased, although there was no significance. In contrast, the expression levels of TNF-α and IL-17A in the RR stage were significantly higher compared to the control group. This suggests that the peak stage of EAE is primarily driven by Th1 cells rather than Th17 cells, whereas the RR stage of EAE was initiated by both the Th1 and Th17 cells. It is worth noting that the expression of IL-10 in the EAE group at both the peak and RR period was markedly lower than that in the control group, suggesting that the immunosuppressive function of Treg cells was hindered during the pathological procession of EAE.
In conclusion, our studies suggest the successful establishment of a mice relapsing-remitting EAE model through immunization with MOG35-55 peptide. From the perspective of active phase, the peak stage of EAE was probably initiated by CD4+CD69+ Teff and CD4+CD44+CD62L– Tem cells, while the relapse of EAE RR stage might be mainly dominated by CD4+CD44+CD62L– Tem cells. From the perspective of immune effect function, the peak stage of EAE was mainly initiated not by Th17 cells but by Th1 cells. However, the RR stage of EAE was initiated by Th1 and Th17 cells. The immunosuppressive function of Treg cells was inhibited during the EAE pathological process. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms underlying the activation of Th1/Th17 cells and the suppression of Treg cells require further investigation.
The authors have nothing to disclose.
This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Ningxia (2022AAC03601 and 2023AAC02087) and Research Foundation of Ningxia Medical University (XM2019052). Thanks for the support of the Medical Science and Technology Research Center of Ningxia Medical University.
Anesthesia machine evaporator | Norvap | 20-17368 | |
Isoflurane | Sigma-Aldrich (Shanghai) Trading Co.Ltd. | 792632 | |
70 μm cell strainer | XIYAN Co.,Ltd. | 15-1070 | |
Alexa Fluor 700 anti-mouse CD45 Antibody | Biolegend | 103128 | |
APC anti-mouse CD4 Antibody | Biolegend | 100616 | |
Automatic cell counter | Jiangsu JIMBIO technology Co., LTD | JIMBIO iCyta S2 | |
BD* Cytometric Bead Array (CBA) Mouse Th1/Th2/Th17 CBA Kit | BD Biosciences | 560485 | |
Biotin anti-mouse CD16/32 Antibody | Biolegend | 101303 | |
Brilliant Violet 510 anti-mouse CD69 Antibody | Biolegend | 104532 | |
BV786 Rat Anti-Mouse CD62L(MEL-14) | BD Pharmingen | 563109 | |
Column Tissue&Cell Protein Extraction Kit | Shanghai Epizyme Biomedical Technology Co., Ltd | PC201Plus | |
Complete Freund's Adjuvant | Sigma-Aldrich (Shanghai) Trading Co.Ltd. | SLCH4887 | |
Dehydrator | DIAPATH | Donatello | |
Disposable sterilized syringe (1 mL) | Yikang Group | 210820 | |
Disposable sterilized syringe (2.5 mL) | Yikang Group | 210820 | |
Disposable sterilized syringe (5 mL) | Yikang Group | 210820 | |
Dyeing machine | DIAPATH | Giotto | |
Embedding machine | Wuhan Junjie Electronics Co., Ltd | JB-P5 | |
Ethanol | SCRC | 100092683 | |
Fetal Bovine Serum | Procell Life Science&Technology Co.,Ltd. | FSP500 | |
FITC Hamster Anti-Mouse CD3e(145-2C11) | BD Pharmingen | 553062 | |
Flow cytometer | Becton,Dickinson and Company | FACSCelesta | |
Flow cytometer | Becton,Dickinson and Company | Accuri C6 | |
Flow Jo software | BD Biosciences | 10.8.1 | |
Frozen platform | Wuhan Junjie Electronics Co., Ltd | JB-L5 | |
Glass slide | Servicebio | G6004 | |
HE dye solution set | Servicebio | G1003 | |
Hematoxylin-Eosin solution | Servicebio | G1002 | |
High speed refrigerated centrifuge | Thermo Fisher Scientific | Mogafugo8R | |
Imaging system | Nikon | NIKON DS-U3 | |
Luxol fast blue staining kit | Servicebio | G1030 | |
Ms CD44 BV421 IM7 | BD Pharmingen | 564970 | |
Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37RA | BD Pharmingen | 231141 | |
Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG35-55) | AnaSpec | AS-60130-1 | |
Neutral gum | SCRC | 10004160 | |
Organizer | KEDEE | KD-P | |
Oven | Labotery | GFL-230 | |
Pathology slicer | Leica | RM2016 | |
Pertussis Toxin from Bordetella pertussis | Sigma-Aldrich (Shanghai) Trading Co.Ltd. | P7208 | |
Phosphate buffered saline | Servicebio | G4202 | |
Pipette 0.5-10 μL | DLAB Scientific | 7010101004 | |
Pipette 100-1000 μL | DLAB Scientific | 7010101014 | |
Pipette 20-200 μL | DLAB Scientific | 7010101009 | |
RPMI-1640 | Procell Life Science&Technology Co.,Ltd. | PM150110 | |
Tee valve | Guangdong Kanghua Medical Co., LTD | A06 | |
Tissue spreader | Zhejiang Kehua Instrument Co.,Ltd | KD-P | |
Upright optical microscope | Nikon | NIKON ECLIPSE E100 | |
Xylene | SCRC | 10023418 |
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