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Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, …

The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by Robert Hooke in 1665. Hooke coined the term "cell" based on the …

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The …

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression …

Human DNA is almost two meters long. However, it is compressed inside a tiny nucleus measuring only a few microns in diameter. To make this degree of …

Each human somatic cell contains 6 billion base pairs of DNA. Each base pair is 0.34 nm long, meaning each diploid cell contains a staggering 2 meters of …

The endoplasmic reticulum or ER makes up for more than half of the membranes in a cell and accounts for 10% of total cell volume. It is also the primary …

Properly folded and assembled proteins are selectively packaged into vesicles that exit the ER. Motor proteins transport these vesicles to the Golgi …

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed spherical sacs derived from the Golgi apparatus. The most important function of the lysosome is degrading macromolecules …

Mitochondria are eukaryotic cellular organelles that are known to produce energy through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. Besides their primary …

A single mitochondrion is a bean-shaped organelle enclosed by a double-membrane system. The outer membrane of mitochondria is smooth and contains many …

Peroxisomes are specialized organelles present in fungi, plant, and animal cells. It can vary in number, size, morphology, and activity depending on the …

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that …

Eukaryotic cells can degrade proteins through several pathways. One of the most important among these is the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. It helps the …

Overview of the Cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments present within the cell, having three distinct filaments …

Most animal cells comprise a pair of centrioles together called a centrosome. The cell duplicates its centrosome and contains two centrosomes …

Microtubules are thick hollow cylindrical proteins that help form the cytoskeleton. Microtubules have varied roles in the cell. These filaments help form …

The ciliary structures were first seen in 1647 by Antonie Leeuwenhoek while observing the protozoans. In lower organisms, these appendages are responsible …

Microvilli are tiny finger-like projections found on the surface of certain cells. Their purpose is to increase the surface area of the cell's apical …

Nucleosomes are the DNA-histone complex, where the DNA strand is wound around the histone core. The histone core is an octamer containing two copies of …

The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway is a well-known mechanism utilized by eukaryotic cells to remove cytoplasmic proteins that are misfolded, damaged, or no …