E. C. Tolman emphasized the purposiveness of behavior — the idea that much of our behavior is goal-directed. For instance, employees who aim for a promotion work diligently to meet their targets. Tolman argued that when classical conditioning and operant conditioning occur, the organism acquires certain expectations. In classical conditioning, a child might fear a dog because they expect it to bite. In operant conditioning, a person might consistently work overtime because they expect a bonus at the end of the month. Thus, according to this reasoning, when we learn through conditioning, we are not only forming associations but also developing expectations about the world.
Expectations arise from individuals' experiences with their environment. For example, individuals who are trying to save money might spend less when they have left their credit cards at home. One reason this tactic works is that it defies their expectations: they expected to make purchases, not to avoid them. Expectancies also influence the placebo effect. Studies have shown that many medications are more effective in reducing symptoms when patients are aware of receiving treatment compared to when they are unaware. If patients know they are receiving medication, they can leverage their own expectations to enhance the drug's effectiveness.
Latent learning, also known as implicit learning, is unreinforced learning that is not immediately evident in behavior. Latent learning can occur incidentally as a result of experience, without any reinforcement. For example, someone might learn the layout of a new city simply by walking through it regularly, even if they never consciously try to memorize the streets. This type of learning demonstrates that knowledge can be acquired passively and without direct reinforcement.
