Source: Robert M. Rioux & Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Earth’s gravitational force is capable of separating heterogeneous mixtures. However, many systems avert this type of separation owing to the length of time usually required in such cases. Centrifugation is one of the most powerful tools for the separation of heterogeneous mixtures1. It involves the application of centripetal force for sedimentation of the heavier phase, leading to separation of the two phases, and is a commonly used technique in industrial and laboratory settings.
In a typical centrifugation process, particles suspended in a fluid are spun about the centrifuge axis of rotation, causing a force away from the axis. This force drives the particles to the bottom of the centrifuge sample holder at a rate which is dependent on the size and density of the particles. Centrifugation is therefore a technique to speed up the process of sedimentation.
To ensure safety in the usage of a centrifuge, the user should be properly trained and made aware of the hazards that might result from its usage. The following sections present a discussion of handling and safety while working with centrifuges.
A centrifuge consists of three basic parts-a rotor, a drive shaft, and a motor2. The rotor holds the tubes, bottles, or bags containing the liquids to be centrifuged. It is usually made of a high strength material, such as an aluminum alloy or stainless steel. Different rotor types and sizes, interchangeable with one another, can be mounted on the drive shaft, which connects to the motor. The motor provides the power to turn the rotor. Usually, a secure cabinet surrounds and supports these parts. The operating controls and indicator dials for speed and time are mounted on the cabinet. Most centrifuges have a brake system to bring the rotor to a standstill shortly after the run isfinished. Many centrifuges are also refrigerated to prevent delicate biological samples from getting warm, since samples tend to heat up during the centrifugation process. There are both low-speed and high-speed instruments for centrifugation. Centrifuges which operate at speeds up to 10,000 rpm are considered low-speed instruments, while high-speed instruments operate at speeds up to 21,000 rpm. Ultracentrifuges can exceed rotation speeds of 30,000 rpm.
Due to the high speed at which a centrifuge operates, it can cause serious injury to the user if mishandled. The hazards caused by centrifugation are connected primarily either to mechanical failure or dispersion of aerosols. The centrifugal force on the rotor causes a load on the rotor of the centrifuge, leading to small change in the dimensions of the metal. Rotors are designed to withstand a stress threshold and be able to return to their original resting-state dimensions. However, if this threshold stress is exceeded, the rotor maybe permanently deformed. Cracks and other wear will lead to deterioration of the rotor over time, compromising safe operation of the centrifuge. If a hazardous material leaks within the rotor or body of the centrifuge, it can pose potential hazards to the user and others present in the surrounding area. Hence, it is important for all users to follow standard steps for the safe operation of centrifuges and to be trained to handle situations in case of operation failure or other hazards. The user should never become complacent when working with low-speed instruments. They can still cause significant injuries to the user.
1. General Protocol for Safe Centrifuge Usage
2. Additional Precautions While Handling Hazardous Chemicals or Infectious Materials
3. Emergency Situations and Their Safety Measures
An emergency situation may arise if the rotor malfunctions or if there is a spill in the centrifuge due to tube breakage or mishandling. In such situations, the following steps should be taken.
4. Maintenance of the Centrifuge
NOTE: The body of the centrifuge is usually made from metals that can corrode in the presence of moisture, chemicals, or strong cleaning agents. For proper maintenance of the centrifuge, it is recommended to carefully follow the manufacturer's instructions for cleaning and maintenance. Other than that, a few general measures for maintenance to be kept in mind are as follows.
Centrifugation is one of the most powerful tools used in labs for the separation of heterogeneous mixtures, but it can be hazardous, and therefore safety precautions should be applied.
A centrifuge rapidly spins samples to separate heterogeneous materials, which induces extreme centrifugal forces on the samples and the instrument. Due to the high speed at which a centrifuge operates, it can cause serious injury to the user if mishandled. Therefore, special care must be taken when using a centrifuge to prevent spills and damage to the equipment.
This video will illustrate the mechanism of a centrifuge and how to safely operate and maintain one.
Before going into the details of the safety measures, let's quickly review the basics of centrifugation. Centrifuges contain a rotor housed on a spindle. Differently sized rotors can usually be fitted on a single spindle to accommodate different sample bottles, tubes, or bags. A motor spins the rotor at a specified RPM or revolutions per minute. This, in turn, imparts the centrifugal force on the heterogeneous mixture directed away from the axis of rotation, which separates particles with different densities.
Different types of centrifuges operate at different RPMs. Low-speed centrifuges run at less than 10,000 RPMs, high-speed up to 21,000, and ultracentrifuges to 30,000 and above. Each type has different rotors that are compatible with it. After the run, a braking system usually slows down the rotor. In any centrifuge, high speed deforms the rotor.
In normal use, it will return to its previous size. However, if the force due to spinning exceeds the maximum force that the rotor can handle, then it might get permanently deformed. This can lead to cracks, which may, in turn, lead to serious failure. Centrifuge failures, on the other hand, may lead to sample leakage, which can be dangerous if hazardous materials are involved and should be handled with care. Now, we will show you how to prepare samples and safely use them in the centrifuge.
First, select appropriate centrifuge tubes that are compatible with the rotating speeds you want to use. Check the documentation to find out the tube's limits. Tubes should be intact and free of any cracks. Fill each to no more than 3/4 full to prevent spills. Then make sure that the tubes are balanced and cap them tightly.
When centrifuging hazardous chemical or biological samples, take special precautions. Wear appropriate protective equipment, and prepare samples in an appropriate work environment, like a fume hood or laminar flow cabinet. For more information on these safety features, see JoVE's videos on Fume Hoods.
If necessary, use a secondary containment for hazardous materials, like a glass or plastic insert. Sealed safety tubes providing a contained environment can be used as well. Everyone must be trained before using any centrifuge or rotor.
Select a rotor appropriate to the centrifuge. Check that the rotor and its cover are clean and dry and do not have cracks or deformities. Make extra sure that the O-rings on the rotor or cover are not worn. Also, check the centrifuge spindle to see if it is bent or has any other deformities. Then place the rotor on the spindle making sure it is correctly seated. Insert samples into the rotor, being sure that the tubes fit snugly in the rotor.
Always put balanced tubes opposite each from each other. Cover the rotor, ensuring that the seal is tight. Close the centrifuge lid and start your program. Again, see JoVE's previous centrifuge video, for more information about running a centrifuge program.
Stay at the centrifuge until it has reached its maximum speed. Familiarize yourself with the location of the power button. Turn off the power button if there are any unusual sounds or vibrations to stop the centrifuge immediately. Then evacuate the immediate area until the rotor has stopped. Once it has stopped, inspect the samples for spillage and the rotor for any abnormalities or imbalances. If there were no problems, wait until the centrifuge has completed its program and completely stopped.
Wait an additional half-hour if aerosol-forming chemicals are present. Otherwise, you may open
the centrifuge immediately. Remove the samples and take them back to a specialized area for opening if necessary. In case of a spill, clean up the centrifuge immediately. Use appropriate PPE to any hazard present, and dispose of contaminated materials according to guidelines. Do not use abrasive brush wires to clean as they may damage the rotor. Alert emergency personnel, and do not attempt to clean the centrifuge if life-threatening hazards have spilled.
Decontaminate the rotor with 10% bleach for any biological samples used in the centrifuge regardless of spill or not. Let the bleach stand for 30 minutes, and then rinse 70% ethanol and air dry. Lastly, remove and inspect the rotor for any damage, and note down your use in the logbook.
You've just watched JoVE's Introduction Into Centrifuge Use. You should now understand how to prepare your samples as well as how to operate and maintain the instrument.
Thanks for watching.
With the increased usage of centrifuges in laboratories and industry, the risk of hazards for using centrifuges has also increased. However, careful handling of the apparatus and proper knowledge of its use and safety measures can substantially mitigate accidents. A basic guideline for working with centrifuges is provided here. Nonetheless, procedures may vary marginally depending on the particular centrifuge machine used. Hence, it is always recommended to carefully read and understand the user manual of the particular machine before starting to use it.
Centrifugation is one of the most powerful tools used in labs for the separation of heterogeneous mixtures, but it can be hazardous, and therefore safety precautions should be applied.
A centrifuge rapidly spins samples to separate heterogeneous materials, which induces extreme centrifugal forces on the samples and the instrument. Due to the high speed at which a centrifuge operates, it can cause serious injury to the user if mishandled. Therefore, special care must be taken when using a centrifuge to prevent spills and damage to the equipment.
This video will illustrate the mechanism of a centrifuge and how to safely operate and maintain one.
Before going into the details of the safety measures, let’s quickly review the basics of centrifugation. Centrifuges contain a rotor housed on a spindle. Differently sized rotors can usually be fitted on a single spindle to accommodate different sample bottles, tubes, or bags. A motor spins the rotor at a specified RPM or revolutions per minute. This, in turn, imparts the centrifugal force on the heterogeneous mixture directed away from the axis of rotation, which separates particles with different densities.
Different types of centrifuges operate at different RPMs. Low-speed centrifuges run at less than 10,000 RPMs, high-speed up to 21,000, and ultracentrifuges to 30,000 and above. Each type has different rotors that are compatible with it. After the run, a braking system usually slows down the rotor. In any centrifuge, high speed deforms the rotor.
In normal use, it will return to its previous size. However, if the force due to spinning exceeds the maximum force that the rotor can handle, then it might get permanently deformed. This can lead to cracks, which may, in turn, lead to serious failure. Centrifuge failures, on the other hand, may lead to sample leakage, which can be dangerous if hazardous materials are involved and should be handled with care. Now, we will show you how to prepare samples and safely use them in the centrifuge.
First, select appropriate centrifuge tubes that are compatible with the rotating speeds you want to use. Check the documentation to find out the tube’s limits. Tubes should be intact and free of any cracks. Fill each to no more than 3/4 full to prevent spills. Then make sure that the tubes are balanced and cap them tightly.
When centrifuging hazardous chemical or biological samples, take special precautions. Wear appropriate protective equipment, and prepare samples in an appropriate work environment, like a fume hood or laminar flow cabinet. For more information on these safety features, see JoVE’s videos on Fume Hoods.
If necessary, use a secondary containment for hazardous materials, like a glass or plastic insert. Sealed safety tubes providing a contained environment can be used as well. Everyone must be trained before using any centrifuge or rotor.
Select a rotor appropriate to the centrifuge. Check that the rotor and its cover are clean and dry and do not have cracks or deformities. Make extra sure that the O-rings on the rotor or cover are not worn. Also, check the centrifuge spindle to see if it is bent or has any other deformities. Then place the rotor on the spindle making sure it is correctly seated. Insert samples into the rotor, being sure that the tubes fit snugly in the rotor.
Always put balanced tubes opposite each from each other. Cover the rotor, ensuring that the seal is tight. Close the centrifuge lid and start your program. Again, see JoVE’s previous centrifuge video, for more information about running a centrifuge program.
Stay at the centrifuge until it has reached its maximum speed. Familiarize yourself with the location of the power button. Turn off the power button if there are any unusual sounds or vibrations to stop the centrifuge immediately. Then evacuate the immediate area until the rotor has stopped. Once it has stopped, inspect the samples for spillage and the rotor for any abnormalities or imbalances. If there were no problems, wait until the centrifuge has completed its program and completely stopped.
Wait an additional half-hour if aerosol-forming chemicals are present. Otherwise, you may open
the centrifuge immediately. Remove the samples and take them back to a specialized area for opening if necessary. In case of a spill, clean up the centrifuge immediately. Use appropriate PPE to any hazard present, and dispose of contaminated materials according to guidelines. Do not use abrasive brush wires to clean as they may damage the rotor. Alert emergency personnel, and do not attempt to clean the centrifuge if life-threatening hazards have spilled.
Decontaminate the rotor with 10% bleach for any biological samples used in the centrifuge regardless of spill or not. Let the bleach stand for 30 minutes, and then rinse 70% ethanol and air dry. Lastly, remove and inspect the rotor for any damage, and note down your use in the logbook.
You’ve just watched JoVE’s Introduction Into Centrifuge Use. You should now understand how to prepare your samples as well as how to operate and maintain the instrument.
Thanks for watching.