Chromatin looseness appears to be involved in the developmental potential of blastomeres. However, it is not known whether chromatin looseness can be used as a reliable index for the developmental potential for embryos. Here, an experimental system in which chromatin looseness-evaluated zygotes can develop to full term has been described.
Live imaging is a powerful tool that allows for the analysis of molecular events during ontogenesis. Recently, chromatin looseness or openness has been shown to be involved in the cellular differentiation potential of pluripotent embryonic stem cells. It was previously reported that compared with embryonic stem cells, zygotes harbor an extremely loosened chromatin structure, suggesting its association with their totipotency. However, until now, it has not been addressed whether this extremely loosened/open chromatin structure is important for embryonic developmental potential. In the present study, to examine this hypothesis, an experimental system in which zygotes that were analyzed by fluorescence recovery after photo-bleaching can develop to term without any significant damage was developed. Importantly, this experimental system needs only a thermos-plate heater in addition to a confocal laser scanning microscope. The findings of this study suggest that fluorescence recovery after photo-bleaching analysis (FRAP) analysis can be used to investigate whether the molecular events in zygotic chromatin are important for full-term development.
After fertilization, the chromatin structure is altered dynamically, and zygotic chromatin structure is then eventually established1,2. During this period, in paternal pronuclei, the dominant chromatin protein is changed from protamine into histone. The resulting chromatin is extremely different from that of sperms and female oocytes in several points (e.g., histone variant composition, histone modification). Thus, formed zygotic chromatin is thought to be important for subsequent embryonic development. However, despite efforts to reveal the details of zygotic chromatin structure over long periods, methods to evaluate the quality of zygotes or to predict their full-term development at the one-cell stage by analyzing their chromatin structure have never been established.
In the previous study, it is discovered that zygotes have an extremely loosened chromatin structure3. Currently, chromatin looseness or openness is believed to be an important factor for cellular differentiation potential in embryonic stem (ES) cells4. ES cells do not exhibit homogeneity in nature, but are rather heterogeneous; in ES cell colonies, some transiently acquire a higher differentiation potential comparable to blastomeres of two-cell stage embryos. During this transition into the two-cell like state, chromatin looseness in ES cells changes into what is comparable with two-cell stage embryos5. Thus, chromatin looseness seems to be important for cellular differentiation potential and it is possible that extensively open chromatin in zygotes is useful for the evaluation of zygotic developmental potential.
Live imaging is a powerful tool that allows for the analysis of molecular events during ontogenesis since this method allows for subsequent development and even full-term development6. As one of the live imaging methods, FRAP analysis has been used to examine chromatin looseness in preimplantation embryos and ES cells3,4,5. If zygotic chromatin looseness can be analyzed without a detrimental effect on full-term development by FRAP analysis, it may be a valuable tool for the evaluation of the quality of embryos at the one-cell stage. However, the effects on full-term development by this experimental method have not been examined. Recently, an experimental system using FRAP to evaluate zygotic chromatin looseness was developed. Because this was a new observation system for zygotes, it was termed as zygotic FRAP (zFRAP). zFRAP did not critically affect full-term development and has been reported elsewhere7. In this report, the protocol of this experimental method is described.
This study was performed in strict accordance with the recommendations in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the University of Yamanashi. The protocol was approved by the Committee on the Ethics of Animal Experiments of the University of Yamanashi (Permit Number: A24-50). All surgeries were performed under tribromoethanol anesthesia, and all efforts were made to minimize suffering. An illustrated overview of the procedures and time-table are shown in Figure 1 and Table 1, respectively.
1. Preparation of Messenger RNA (In Vitro Transcription of eGFP-H2B mRNA)
2. Preparation of Vasectomized Male Mice
3. IVF
4. Preparation of Chamber and Microinjection Pipettes
5. Microinjection
6. zFRAP Analysis
7. Data Calculation
8. Embryo Transfer
zFRAP analysis with eGFP-H2B
Properly produced mRNA encoding eGFP-H2B, which is seen as a shifted band caused by poly A tailing (Figure 2A), was injected into the cytoplasm of zygotes with a 2nd polar body at 1 – 3 h after insemination (Figure 2B). Eight to 12 h after insemination, zygotes with 2 pronuclei showing the expression of eGFP-H2B were collected and subjected to zFRAP analysis (Figure 2C). The FRAP analysis consists of bleaching and recovery steps. At the pre-bleaching phase, the signal of eGFP-H2B could be observed (Figure 2D-1), but once bleached, the signal declined to a negligible level (Figure 2D-2). If bleaching was successful, a dark hole as large as the ROI appeared soon after bleaching. After bleaching, the intensity of the eGFP-H2B fluorescence signal recovered slightly; the fluorescent signal gradually increased because of the inflow of the unbleached fraction of eGFP-H2B into the ROI from the unbleached area in the nucleoplasm (Figure 2D-3). For confirmation of the success of zFRAP analysis of chromatin looseness, it is recommended to use parental asymmetry of chromatin looseness; male pronuclei showed a faster recovery curve and more mobile fractions than those of females (Figure 2E and F). After zFRAP analysis, washed and cultured zygotes in CZB media, could develop to the blastocyst stage without significant damage (Figure 2G and H). Even if strongly bleached for a longer time, the zygotes could still develop into the blastocyst stage as well7.
Analysis of the full-term development of zFRAP-analyzed zygotes
To analyze the full-term development of embryos derived from zFRAP-analyzed zygotes, the embryos at the two-cell stage were transferred into the oviducts of pseudopregnant mothers. As controls, intact embryos, and one injected with mRNA but not zFRAP-analyzed were prepared. The birth rate of zFRAP-analyzed embryos (41.0%) was slightly but significantly lower than that of intact embryos (62.2%), but was the same as that of the no zFRAP control (52.6%) (Table 2). Thus, zFRAP-analysis seems to be slightly detrimental to full-term embryonic development. However, importantly, the pups derived from zFRAP-analyzed zygotes seemed healthy and fully developed (Figure 3).
Figure 1: A schematic illustration of the flow of procedures for the experiments. In vitro fertilization: Freshly collected metaphase II (MII) oocytes were inseminated with capacitated sperm. In vitro transcription: Messenger RNA (mRNA) encoding eGFP-fused histone H2B (eGFP-H2B) were transcribed from the SP6 promoter of the linearized pTOPO-eGFP-H2B3 with Not I. The eGFP-H2B mRNA subjected poly A tailing and then purification. The purified eGFP-H2B mRNA is used in mRNA injection. mRNA injection: The prepared eGFP-H2B mRNA is injected into the cytoplasm of the zygotes with 2nd polar body. zFRAP analysis: The eGFP-H2B-expressing zygotes were subjected to zFRAP analysis. The region of interests (ROI; red rectangle) was bleached with a strong laser and then the eGFP-H2B signal declined to a negligible level. After bleaching, the intensity of the eGFP-H2B signal gradually increased. In vitro development: After zFRAP analysis, the zygotes could develop into the blastocyst stage. Embryo transfer: At two-cell stage, the zFRAP-analyzed embryos were transferred into the oviducts of pseudopregnant female mice. 18 days later, healthy live pups could be obtained from zFRAP-analyzed embryos. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 2: zFRAP analysis of zygotes with eGFP-H2B. (A) Representative image of properly prepared mRNA by in vitro transcription and poly A tailing. Lane 1: pre-poly A tailing; lane 2: post poly A tailing. (B) mRNA encoding eGFP-H2B was injected into the cytoplasm of zygotes with a 2nd polar body 1 – 3 h post insemination (hpi). Scale bar = 25 µm (C) eGFP-H2B-expressing zygotes were collected at 8 – 12 hpi. White asterisks show nucleolus precursor bodies (NPB). Scale bar = 10 µm (D) eGFP-H2B expression was detected in the entire nucleoplasm even in NPB at the pre-bleaching phase (D-1), soon after bleaching (D-2), and after recovery (D-3). The nuclear membranes (white dotted lines) and NPB (asterisks) are indicated. Scale bar = 10 µm. (E, F) Recovery curve and mobile fractions were obtained from 45 zygotes in 5 independent experiments. Blue and red indicate male and female, respectively. In recovery curves, single circles indicate the measuring point. In scatter plots, single dots indicate the score of mobile fractions obtained from pronuclei. (G) Representative images of the preimplantation development of zFRAP-analyzed zygotes are shown. Two-cell, 4-8 cell, and blastocyst stage embryos at 24, 48, and 96 hpi, respectively. The yellow circle indicates the well-developed blastocyst. This blastocyst is enlarged and shown on the right panel. Scale bar = 100 µm. (H) Bar graph of developmental rates of zFRAP-analyzed embryos. Bars indicate zFRAP-analyzed (zFRAP) embryos (white) and control embryos (black) injected with mRNA but no zFRAP analysis (No zFRAP). Data shown are from three independent experiments, examining at least 57 embryos in total. Two-cell, 4-8 cell, morula (Mo), and blastocyst (Bl) stages were observed at 24, 48, 72, and 96 hpi, respectively. This figure has been modified from [Ooga et al 2017]7. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 3: The healthy growth of pups derived from the FRAP-analyzed zygotes. (A) The pictures of pups derived from zFRAP-analyzed zygotes are shown. (B) Normal growth was observed during the nursing of the zFRAP-analyzed pups. (C) The graph indicates the weight of pups derived from intact embryos (blue), unbleached control embryos (red), and zFRAP-analyzed embryos (green). Body weights of 29 pups derived from intact embryos, 24 from no-zFRAP embryos, and 15 from zFRAP-analyzed embryos over an 8-week period. Values indicated by asterisks are significantly different from the intact control. This figure has been modified from [Ooga et al 2017]7. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Supplemental Figure 1: Graphical user interface for FRAP analysis. (A) An overview of the graphical user interface was shown. (B) Enlarged images for each window were shown. (1) The Acquisition Setting window is used for setting the image acquisition condition. (2) The Stimulus Setting window is used for setting the bleaching condition. This window can be opened by clicking the button on the Image acquisition window. (3) The Image Acquisition Control window is used for the FRAP analysis. (4) The Live View shows the present image (the present image appears after clicking Focus x2 or XY button). The red, green, and light blue rectangles show the ROI (region of interest), REF (reference), and BG (background), respectively. (5) The 2D View shows the FRAP-analyzed image and appears after clicking the "Series Done" button. In this case, a FRAP-analyzed male pronucleus is shown as an example. Three rectangles with 8 dots indicate that these regions are selected. (6) The Live Plot shows the present fluorescence intensity at each region. The X and Y axes indicate time (ms) and fluorescence intensity, respectively. (7) The Series Analysis shows the tracks of fluorescence intensity at each region and appears after clicking Series Analysis button on the 2D View window. Please click here to download this file.
Supplemental Excel File 1: Example data and data calculation. (Sheet 1) An example data for a male pronucleus is shown. No. indicates the consecutive number of the image. The row intensities for each region (ROI, Ref, and BG) were indicated. (Sheet 2) An example for data calculation is shown. Protocol number indicates the corresponding places in the protocol section. Notes explain the meaning of each score. The numerical formula can be referred by clicking the cells. Examples of recovery curve and mobile fraction bar graph are shown. Please click here to download this file.
Day -3 | Day -2 | Day -1 | Day of FRAP | Day +1 | Day +3 | Day +19 | |
mRNA preparation | Cutting template plasmid (over night) |
1). Purification template plasmid | |||||
2). In vitro transcription | |||||||
3). In vitro poly A tailing | |||||||
4). mRNA quality check by electrophoresis | |||||||
FRAP | 1). Preparation of manipulation pipet and chamber | ||||||
2). mRNA injection | |||||||
3). zFRAP analysis | |||||||
4). Calculation of recovery curve and mobile fraction*2 | |||||||
IVF and analysis of pre-implantation development | eCG injection | 1). hCG injection | 1). Sperm capacitation | ||||
2). Pre-incubation of media (HTF) | 2). In vitro fertilization | ||||||
Preparation of the media (HTF, CZB, H-CZB and PVP-CZB) | 3). Evaluation preimplantation development | ||||||
Embryo transfer | Preparation of pseudopregnant female (mating with vasectomized male*1) |
Transfer of 2-cell stage embryos to pseudopregnant female | Evaluation of birth rate | ||||
*1: Vasectomized male mouse should be prepared at least 2 weeks before mating | |||||||
*2: Calculation can be prolonged into the next day (Day +1) |
Table 1: Time table of the experiments. The day of the FRAP analysis is regarded as day 0.The experiments that should be performed are indicated on the respective days for each item.
Categories | No. of injected zygotes | No. of recovered zygotes after mRNA injection (%)* | No. of zygotes analyzed | No. of transferred | No. of recipients | No. of pups (%)*** | Weight of pups (g) | No. of transgenic pups |
2-cell stage embryos (%)** | ||||||||
Intact | – | – | 99 | 98 (99.0) | 9 | 61 (62.2)a | 1.64±0.02 | n.d |
No FRAP | 420 | 398 (94.8) | 82 | 78 (95.1) | 7 | 41 (52.6)a, b | 1.66±0.03 | n.d |
FRAP | 79 | 78 (98.7) | 7 | 32 (41.0)b | 1.69±0.03 | 0 | ||
*: calculated by dividing with no. of injected zygotes; **: calculated by dividing with no. of zygotes analyzed; ***: calculated by dividing with no. of transferred 2-cell stage embryos. a,b: superscripts indicate significant difference (P<0.05). n.d: not determined. This table has been modified from [Ooga et al 2017]7. |
Table 2: The birth rate of analyzed embryos: The developmental potential of the embryos, which had been FRAP-analyzed, to full-term was examined. The obtained birth rate of these embryos is shown. As controls, intact and no FRAP-analyzed embryos were also examined. The weights of pups derived from these transferred embryos are shown as well.
As revealed in this study, the zFRAP analysis does not cause critical damage to full-term development, suggesting this method is a very useful tool to reveal the association between molecular events and the embryonic developmental potential. During reprogramming, into the two-cell like state of ES cells, by which the differential potential of those cells becomes as high as that of two-cell stage embryos, chromatin looseness changes into that comparable with two-cell stage embryos5. Accordingly, it is possible that zygotic chromatin looseness is important for embryonic developmental potential. Somatic cell nuclei transferred into the cytoplasm of oocytes showed lower chromatin looseness compared with not only paternal pronuclei but also maternal pronuclei, suggesting the lack of acquisition open chromatin in somatic cell nuclear transfer zygotes is involved in their poor developmental potential. Collectively, the zFRAP analysis seems to be useful for elucidating genome reprogramming mechanisms.
The zFRAP system may make it possible to select zygotes with high developmental potential. In the preliminary study, in addition to SCNT, it was revealed that round spermatid injection (ROSI)-derived zygotes harbor abnormal chromatin looseness. Besides, it was found that some of them showed chromatin looseness at the level comparable to IVF-derived zygotes as well, suggesting that these zygotes have high developmental potential. Importantly, zygotes of which chromatin looseness was evaluated by zFRAP could develop to term. In the future, therefore, it may be possible to distinguish the SCNT- and ROSI-derived zygotes with higher developmental potential from lower ones by the evaluation of chromatin looseness by zFRAP.
To date, previous studies have shown the utility of live imaging method for the analysis of epigenetic state in preimplantation embryos. Some of the live imaging methods can reveal each epigenetic modification (e.g. DNA/histone modification) in preimplantation embryos13,14, but using zFRAP, it is possible to evaluate the zygotic chromatin looseness without killing the cells. Chromatin looseness seems to be affected by epigenetic modifications. For example, heterochromatin in which repressive epigenetic modification such as H3K9me3 and H3K27me3 are enriched showed lower histone mobility than euchromatic region3,15. Indeed, treatment with a chemical compound, which converts epigenetic state, caused the alteration of chromatin looseness in zygotes. Therefore, using zFRAP, it is possible to reveal the summative epigenetic state of chromatin structure. It was thought that this would be an advantage for evaluating the developmental potential of the zygotes.
The injection of mRNA encoding eGFP-H2B for zFRAP has a demerit but increases the versatility of zFRAP. The demerit of the mRNA injection is the damage caused by microinjection. To avoid this, it is very effective to utilize the eGFP-H2B transgenic mouse. If eGFP-H2B transgenic mouse line is used, the offspring rate may be increased compared to the case of using mRNA microinjection. Conversely, it is the merit of mRNA injection that zFRAP allows the use of any kind of strain of wild-type mice. The researchers who want to use zFRAP with their interest of mouse strain do not need to prepare the desired mouse strain with eGFP-H2B transgene. This merit becomes more prominent in the analysis of transgenic (e.g. overexpression/knockdown) or knockout mouse line. The researchers who want to utilize zFRAP for their research topics with the transgenic/knockout line do not have to prepare the eGFP-H2B transgenic line from a limited number of their interest ones. This indicates an advantage for the progression of research.
Live imaging analysis with preimplantation embryos requires specialized knowledge and very expensive and finely tuned specialized devices. Therefore, an introduction of such an experimental system is not an easy decision. The experimental system that is established in this study needs only a thermo-heater aside from a confocal laser scanning microscope. In addition, learning the method is easy so that a beginner in a laboratory can learn the method of zFRAP within 1 month. However, there are some issues that still need consideration. First is focus drift. During observation, it is possible that the pronuclei or the zygotes deviate from the position where they presented before observation starts. If the focus drift occurs, ROIs also deviate from the correct position. As a result, quantitative data becomes worthless. To avoid this issue, the researcher has to use the lid of the glass bottom dishes for protection against the window from the air conditioner and wait for the oil expansion over the objective lens. If focus drift occur, data from the deviating zygotes should be discarded and a 2nd FRAP analysis with the same zygotes is not recommended. In this study, shortening the observation time from 150 s3 to about 25 s7 was very helpful. Second is longer incubation outside the incubator. Since longer exposure to the environment outside the incubator is definitely harmful for the embryonic development, it was recommended to finish the FRAP-analysis within 1 h per batch. The number of the zygotes FRAP-analyzed in a HEPES-buffered media on the glass bottom dishes should be 6 – 10. In this experimental condition, the maximum number is around 30 for 4 h but if more zygotes are needed, 20 zygotes per h can be analyzed by postponing the assessment of fluorescent intensity in the reference and background region. Third is "time-related deterioration of the laser of the confocal laser microscopy". If the bleaching laser is insufficient, the correct quantitative data cannot be obtained because of insufficient bleaching. Indeed, the parental asymmetry of zygotic chromatin looseness cannot be acquired with a weak bleaching laser. To avoid this, it is recommended to check whether the laser power has weakened as the occasion arises. In this study, 110-µW bleaching was enough for the acquisition of parental asymmetry.
zFRAP analysis can be used for other kinds of proteins, in addition to core histones. Since core histones show prominently low mobility, longer total observation time (about 25 s in this study) is needed in the zFRAP analysis. Therefore, to analyze a considerable number of zygotes, culturing in HEPES-buffered media on the heater for a long time is unavoidable. On the other hand, for the zFRAP analysis of high mobility proteins, the total observation time can be set short, enabling the time of culturing in HEPES-buffered media on the heater to be short. Therefore, since longer exposure to the environment outside the incubator is highly detrimental for the embryonic development, zFRAP analysis for proteins other than core histones, which have high mobility by nature, seem to show lower toxicity than core histones. It is hoped that this experimental system will help further the investigation of the relationships between various molecular events and embryonic development.
The authors have nothing to disclose.
We thank Satoshi Kishigami, Sayaka Wakayama, Hiroaki Nagatomo, Satoshi Kamimura, and Kana Kishida for providing critical comments and technical support. This work was partially funded by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology program for promoting the reform of national universities to M.O.; the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (16H02593), Asada Science Foundation, and the Takeda Science Foundation to T.W. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Confocal laser scaning microscope | Olympus | FV1200 | FV1000 can be also used for FRAP analysis (reference #7) |
Thermo plate | Tokai Hit | TP-110RH26 | |
Inverted microscope | Olympus | IX71 | |
Micro manupilator | Narishige | MMO-202ND | |
Pieze Micro Micromanipulator | Prime tech | PMAS-CT150 | |
35 mm culture dish | Falcom | 351008 | 35 x 100 mm style; for IVF |
60 mm culture dish | Falcom | 351007 | 60 x 15 mm style; for embryo culture |
50 mm culture dish | Falcom | 351006 | 50 x 9 mm style; for manipulation on the stage |
50 mm glass bottom dish | Matsunami | D910400 | 50 mm dish, 27 mm φ hole size; for FRAP analysis |
Mineral oil | Organic spceiality chemicals | 625071 | For FRAP analysis on the glass bottom dishes |
Mineral oil | Sigma | M8410-1L | For IVF and embryo culture |
glass capillary | Drummond | 1-000-1000 | For handling mouse zygotes |
Borosilicate glass | Prime tech | B100-75-10-PT | For microinjection of mRNA |
Micropipett puller | Sutter instrument | P-97/IVF | For preparation of the injection or holding neadle (out side diameter: 80 µm, inner diameter: 10 µm) |
Microforge | Narishige | MF-900 | |
mMESSAGE MACHINE SP6 Transcription kit | Thermo Fisher scientific |
AM1340 | |
Poly (A) tailing kit | Thermo Fisher scientific |
AM1350 | |
PVP solution 10% (PVP-HTF) | IrvineSceientific | 99311 | HEPES buffered HTF containing 10% PVP |
Sodium HEPES | Sigma | H3784 | |
pTOPO eGFP-H2B | Template plasmid for eGFP-H2B mRNA (reference #6) | ||
NorthernMax Gly Sample loading Dye | Thermo Fisher scientific |
AM8551 | For electrophoresis of in vitro transcribed mRNA |
Phenol chloroform isamyl alcohol | nacalai tesque | 25970-14 | |
Chloroform | nacalai tesque | 08401-65 | |
Not I | TOYOBO | NOT-111X | |
Ethachinmate | WAKO | 318-01793 | |
3664 Otical power meter | Hioki | 3664 | Power meter for laser power |
Stereomicmicroscope | Olympus | SZX16 |