一个现实世界<em>什么，在哪里，当</em>记忆测试
Summary
现实世界什么地方 – 当记忆测试是一种新颖的情景记忆测试时，参与者需要回忆哪些对象已隐藏在哪两个不同场合的哪个位置。它很容易运行，对正常的认知衰老敏感。
Abstract
剧情记忆是一个复杂的记忆系统，允许从自己的生活回忆和心理重新体验以前的剧集。现实生活中的情景记忆是关于他们的时空背景下的事件，通常是视觉空间，而不是言语。然而，经常使用语言记忆的测试来回忆（单词列表，故事）。现实世界什么地方 – 当记忆测试要求参与者在两个时间场合中在16个不同位置隐藏共16个不同的对象，间隔2 h。另外两个小时后，他们被要求回忆哪些对象（什么）他们隐藏在哪个位置（哪里）和哪两个场合（何时）。除了对正确调用的数量进行计数以外，什么时候组合，此任务也可用于测试现实世界的空间存储器和对象存储器。这个任务对正常的认知衰老敏感，并且与其他情景记忆的表现相关性很好任务，同时提供更多的生态有效性，便宜且易于运行。
Introduction
独一无二的记忆是从自己的过去的独特事件的记忆，这些事件经历了作为原始事件（精神时间旅行） 1,2的复原。这也是许多形式痴呆症早期阶段受影响的第一类记忆之一3,4 。内侧颞叶，特别是海马，被认为是处于情景记忆5中的重要结构，因此影响海马功能的任何条件，如老化和许多情绪障碍，也被认为影响情绪记忆功能。因此，情景记忆功能可以是一系列神经和精神病症的有用的生物标志物。
然而，量化记忆的方法仍然不太理想。现实世界每天的情景记忆是他们的时空背景下独特事件的综合记忆7 ，通常附带编码4 。在诊所和学术研究中使用的两种最常用的方法是单词列表学习8 ，并从自己的过去3叙述一个故事。两种方法都有优缺点。单词列表对故事方式的优势在于评估者确切知道正确的答案。这很难从参与者/患者的过去的自发故事中评估，因为经常没有客观证据可用，甚至家庭成员的帐户也可能在其中有不正确的细节。故事的优点是，他们实际上评估了情景记忆的典型内容和结构：时空背景下的事件，有关发生的事情，何时何地结合在一起7 。词列表不需要任何上下文被回忆，并且经常被排练几次（ 例如 Rey听觉语言学习任务）。
最近，已经进行了几次尝试来构建情景记忆任务，其结合了两种经典测试的优点，同时最大限度地减少了缺点9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21 ， 22 。目前的协议是Newcastle大学开发的最新版本的What-Where-When时代记忆测试这个概念是基于与Clayton和Dickinson 23开始的非人类动物的工作，并适应与一系列其他物种的工作24,25,26,27,28，一些其中已经证实了这种范式对于内侧颞叶损伤的敏感性29.它是将几何尝试与成人18,20,30,31组合在一起的情景记忆测试中的几个尝试之一，但唯一的一个在真实环境中进行，无需使用计算机，使参与者/患者易于参与和低成本实施。
Protocol
Representative Results
Discussion
数据显示，其他应用于测量情景记忆的任务的性能预测了现实世界中哪些地方的内存任务的性能。然而，这些相关性可能代表不同任务使用的认知能力的共享子集。现实世界什么地方 – 当记忆任务比这些其他任务具有优势，因为它测试人们的记忆在两个实际的事件发生在真实的时空背景下。然而，不同于向人们介绍自己生活中的事件，在这种情况下，实验者或临床医生确切地知道事件发生了?…
Offenlegungen
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
感谢所有参与者通过不同的任务迭代帮助开发了这种方法。还感谢所有通过多年来不同的迭代帮助的学生：Natasha Dubes，Emma Denning，Victoria Bellhouse，Stephen Holland，Melissa Anderson，Katie Shaw，Sarah Morgan，Karla Butterworth，Michael Craig，Lauren Wray，Olivia Sanderson ，Daniel Lai，Rajameenakshi Boopathy和Chun Kit Ho。这项研究由纽卡斯尔大学对学生研究项目的贡献提供资金。
Materials
| These materials are just examples. Any 20 easy-to-name small objects will do. |
| – A tea light |
| – A toy digger |
| – A toy frog |
| – A clothing hook |
| – A spoon |
| – A set of keys |
| – A button |
| – A lip balm |
| – A toy snowman |
| – A bottle cap |
| – A die |
| – A lighter |
| – A comb |
| – A wrist band |
| – A padlock |
| – A butterfly pin |
| – A ruler |
| – A guitar plectrum |
| – A battery |
| – A USB stick |
Referenzen
- Tulving, E., Tulving, E., Donaldson, W. . Organization of memory. , 381-403 (1972).
- Tulving, E. Episodic memory: From mind to brain. Rev Neurol. 160, S9-S23 (2004).
- Irish, M., Lawlor, B. A., Coen, R. F., O’Mara, S. M. Everyday episodic memory in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: A preliminary investigation. BMC Neurosci. 12, (2011).
- Pause, B. M., et al. Perspectives on Episodic-like and Episodic Memory. Front Behav Neurosci. 7, (2013).
- Eichenbaum, H., Sauvage, M., Fortin, N., Komorowski, R., Lipton, P. Towards a functional organization of episodic memory in the medial temporal lobe. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 36, 1597-1608 (2012).
- Dere, E., Pause, B. M., Pietrowsky, R. Emotion and episodic memory in neuropsychiatric disorders. Behav Brain Res. 215, 162-171 (2010).
- Clayton, N. S., Bussey, T. J., Dickinson, A. Can animals recall the past and plan for the future?. Nat Rev Neurosci. 4, 685-691 (2003).
- Tierney, M. C., et al. Use of the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test in differentiating normal aging from Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s dementia. Psychol Assess. 6, 129-134 (1994).
- Hayne, H., Imuta, K. Episodic memory in 3- and 4-year-old children. Dev Psychobiol. 53, 317-322 (2011).
- Holland, S. M., Smulders, T. V. Do humans use episodic memory to solve a What-Where-When memory task?. Anim Cogn. 14, 95-102 (2011).
- Cheke, L. G., Clayton, N. S. Do different tests of episodic memory produce consistent results in human adults?. Learn Mem. 20, 491-498 (2013).
- Newcombe, N. S., Balcomb, F., Ferrara, K., Hansen, M., Koski, J. Two rooms, two representations? Episodic-like memory in toddlers and preschoolers. Dev Sci. 17, 743-756 (2014).
- Cheke, L. G., Clayton, N. S. The six blind men and the elephant: Are episodic memory tasks tests of different things or different tests of the same thing?. J Exp Child Psychol. 137, 164-171 (2015).
- Cheke, L. G., Simons, J. S., Clayton, N. S. Higher BMI is Associated with Episodic Memory Deficits in Young Adults. Q J Exp Psychol. , 1-24 (2015).
- Kwok, S. C., Macaluso, E. Immediate memory for "when, where and what": Short-delay retrieval using dynamic naturalistic material. Hum Brain Map. 36, 2495-2513 (2015).
- Mazurek, A., Bhoopathy, R., Read, J. C. A., Gallagher, P., Smulders, T. V. Effects of age on a real-world What-Where-When memory task. Front Aging Neurosci. 7, (2015).
- Cheke, L. G. What-where-when memory and encoding strategies in healthy aging. Learn Mem. 23, 121-126 (2016).
- Zlomuzica, A., Preusser, F., Totzeck, C., Dere, E., Margraf, J. The impact of different emotional states on the memory for what, where and when features of specific events. Behav Brain Res. 298 (Part B), 181-187 (2016).
- Plancher, G., Gyselinck, V., Nicolas, S., Piolino, P. Age effect on components of episodic memory and feature binding: A virtual reality study. Neuropsychology. 24, 379-390 (2010).
- Plancher, G., Tirard, A., Gyselinck, V., Nicolas, S., Piolino, P. Using virtual reality to characterize episodic memory profiles in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: Influence of active and passive encoding. Neuropsychologia. 50, 592-602 (2012).
- Laurent, X., Ensslin, A., Marí-Beffa, P. An action to an object does not improve its episodic encoding but removes distraction. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 42, 494-507 (2016).
- Craig, M., et al. How does intentionality of encoding affect memory for episodic information?. Learn Mem. 23, 648-659 (2016).
- Clayton, N. S., Dickinson, A. Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature. 395, 272-274 (1998).
- Skov-Rackette, S. I., Miller, N. Y., Shettleworth, S. J. What-where-when memory in pigeons. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process. 32, 345-358 (2006).
- Roberts, W. A., et al. Episodic-Like Memory in Rats: Is It Based on When or How Long Ago?. Science. 320, 113-115 (2008).
- Feeney, M. C., Roberts, W. A., Sherry, D. F. Memory for what, where, and when in the black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapillus). Anim Cogn. 12, 767-777 (2009).
- Hoffman, M. L., Beran, M. J., Washburn, D. A. Memory for "What" "Where", and "When" Information in Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta). J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process. 35, 143-152 (2009).
- Zinkivskay, A., Nazir, F., Smulders, T. V. What-Where-When memory in magpies (Pica pica). Anim Cogn. 12, 119-125 (2009).
- Binder, S., Dere, E., Zlomuzica, A. A critical appraisal of the what-where-when episodic-like memory test in rodents: Achievements, caveats and future directions. Prog Neurobiol. 130, 71-85 (2015).
- Kinugawa, K., et al. Aging-related episodic memory decline: Are emotions the key?. Front Behav Neurosci. 7, (2013).
- Pause, B. M., Jungbluth, C., Adolph, D., Pietrowsky, R., Dere, E. Induction and measurement of episodic memories in healthy adults. J Neurosci Meth. 189, 88-96 (2010).
- Kessels, R. P. C., Postma, A., De Haan, E. H. F. Object Relocation: A program for setting up, running, and analyzing experiments on memory for object locations. Behav Res Meth, Instr, Comp. 31, 423-428 (1999).
