Cognitive learning is based on purposive behavior, incidental learning, and insight learning.
E. C. Tolman's theory of purposive behavior emphasizes that much behavior is goal-directed. He argued that to understand behavior, we must look at the entire sequence of actions leading to a goal. For instance, high school students study hard, not just due to past reinforcement but also to achieve the goal of getting into a good college.
Tolman introduced the idea that behavior is influenced by expectations formed through experiences. In classical conditioning, an individual learns to expect a certain outcome from a stimulus. For example, a child might fear a rabbit because he expects it to cause harm. In operant conditioning, a behavior, such as working hard, is driven by the expectation of a reward, like a paycheck.
Expectancies also influence behavior in various scenarios. In a study, women who were overweight who threw away desserts ate less because their expectancy to eat the desserts was defied. The placebo effect in pain management is another example where the expectation of pain relief can enhance the actual effect of a painkiller.
Tolman also highlighted the importance of the information value of a conditioned stimulus (CS). He proposed that an organism uses the CS as a signal to predict an unconditioned stimulus (US). Leon Kamin's experiment demonstrated this by showing that a rat conditioned to fear a tone did not condition to a light paired with the same shock, indicating the rat used the tone as the primary signal.
Incidental or latent learning further supports the role of cognition in learning. This type of learning occurs without reinforcement and isn't immediately expressed in behavior. In an experiment by Tolman and Honzik, rats explored a maze without reinforcement and later, when food was introduced, demonstrated they had learned the maze routes during their initial explorations. Tolman's work paved the way for understanding how goals and cognitive expectations drive behavior, highlighting the complexity beyond mere stimulus-response associations. His theories remain influential in contemporary research on goal-setting and self-regulation.
Wolfgang Kohler, a German Gestalt psychologist, demonstrated the role of cognitive factors in learning through his experiments with apes during World War I. Kohler conducted the "stick problem" and the "box problem" experiments, where apes needed to find ways to reach out-of-reach fruit. In the stick problem, an ape had to use two sticks to create a longer tool to retrieve the fruit. In the box problem, the ape had to stack boxes to reach the fruit.
Kohler noted that solving these problems didn't involve trial and error or simple stimulus-response connections. Instead, the apes seemed to have moments of contemplation followed by sudden insight. This type of problem-solving, known as insight learning, involves an abrupt understanding of a solution.
The distinction between insight learning and trial-and-error learning has sparked debate. Insight learning involves both gradual and sudden processes. For example, researchers observed orangutans using water to float a peanut to the top of a tube, a solution reached after some experimentation and a moment of insight.
Multicultural experiences can enhance human insight learning. Studies show that time spent abroad or exposure to other cultures can improve creativity and insight. For instance, U.S. college students who viewed a multicultural slideshow performed better on creativity and insight measures than those who saw a neutral slideshow. These findings suggest that diverse cultural experiences can enhance cognitive flexibility and problem-solving abilities.
