造型粘膜念珠菌在斑马鱼幼虫通过鳔注射

Mucosal infections can lead to life threatening bloodstream infections due to the damage of the epithelial barrier, which allows pathogens access to the systemic environment^1,2. In addition, mucosal infections can also cause significant immunopathology even when contained externally^3-5. The commensal unicellular fungus Candida albicans is present in the majority of the population in the oral cavity and other mucosal sites^6-9. Although normally contained by innate and adaptive immune responses, innate immune defects and medical interventions can lead to severe mucosal candidiasis. The assault on the epithelial barrier results in an increased risk of life threatening disseminated disease as well as immunopathology, as in the case of vulvo-vaginal candidiasis, additionally C. albicans colonization has been linked with lung immune homeostasis^10,11. Disseminated candidiasis is now the fourth most common bloodstream infection in intensive care units¹² and mortality as high as 40% makes it a major concern. Due to the increase in immunomodulatory treatments for patients with autoimmune diseases, cancer or organ transplants, it is imperative to understand the interaction between this pathogen and the mucosal immune compartment.

The majority of cell biological advances regarding C. albicans-cell interactions at the mucosal level come from in vitro^13-15 and murine models^16-18. Both these approaches have distinct advantages, but the ability to image live cells at high resolution in an intact host has limited the temporal and spatial characterization of the infection. For these studies, there is the need for an in vivo model where the interaction of pathogen, innate immune and epithelial cells can be visualized in an intact vertebrate host.

The zebrafish has emerged as an invaluable tool for the understanding of human disease, mainly due to its transparency and amenability to genetic manipulation. Cell and organ development have been imaged in exquisite detail, which has led to the description of novel immune cell behaviors, such as T cell behavior in the developing thymus¹⁹ or the battle between intracellular mycobacteria and phagocytes^20-22. Recent work has described intestinal microbe-host interactions in zebrafish and shown that microbial colonization of the intestinal tract affects host intestinal physiology and resistance to other infections^23,24. Furthermore, infection through the gut epithelium has been described for several pathogens.

In contrast to the intestinal tract, the swimbladder represents a more isolated and complementary mucosal model. This organ is an extension of the developing gut tube and forms anteriorly to the liver and pancreas^25,26. It produces surfactant, mucus and antimicrobial peptides^27,28 and anatomically, as well as ontogenetically, this organ is considered a homologue of the mammalian lung^29,30. Since the pneumatic duct remains connected to the gut in the zebrafish, this allows for immersion infection to occur naturally. Remarkably, the only known naturally occurring infections of fish with Candida species are C. albicans infections in the swimbladder³¹. We recently described an experimental immersion infection model where C. albicans infects the swimbladder, and found that this infection recapitulates some of the hallmarks of C. albicans-epithelial interaction in vitro^32,33.

In the method presented here, the original immersion infection model is improved by directly injecting C. albicans into the swimbladder of 4 days post fertilization (dpf) zebrafish. This allows for precise temporal control of infection as well as a highly reproducible inoculum. It permits detailed intravital imaging, coupled with the versatility of the zebrafish model. As an example of what can be done with this method, we present the spatio-temporal dynamics of C. albicans growth along with neutrophil recruitment to the site of infection. Because zebrafish swimbladder tissue is challenging to image intravitally, we also present a rapid swimbladder dissection technique that improves fluorescence signal and microscopic resolution. These methods expand the toolbox for fungal, immunological, and aquaculture research as well as describing a novel infection route that may be translated to model other fungal, bacterial or viral infections of mucosal surfaces.