早期的病毒进入测定的鉴定和抗病毒化合物的评价

In this report the methods to identify and evaluate antiviral compounds based on a mechanistic approach of dissecting the early viral entry events were described. Specifically, the assays allowed us to examine the effect of test compounds on free virus particles, viral attachment, and viral entry/fusion. Critical steps were implemented to distinctly evaluate the drug effect on the specific stage of early viral entry. For instance, in the ‘viral inactivation assay’, the dilution of the virus-drug mixture to sub-therapeutic concentration prevents significant interaction between the test compound and the host cell surface by ‘titrating out’ the drug. This ensures that the inhibitory effect observed on the subsequent infection of the host cell is due to a direct interaction between the test compound and the cell-free virions, rather than an effect from the test compound on host cell membrane or membrane-associated molecules, including viral receptors³⁰. Similarly, the shift in temperature between 4 °C (which allows for virus binding but not entry) and 37 °C (which facilitates virus entry/fusion) in the ‘viral attachment assay’ and ‘viral entry/fusion assay’ are crucial to determine the test compound’s effect on each of these specific events. This is feasible due to the temperature sensitivity of enveloped viruses during these steps in the infection^24-29. It is therefore important that the assays are performed at the indicated temperature to ensure the accuracy of the results; for example, by carrying out the experiment on ice to maintain at 4 °C and by placing the sample directly in a 37 °C incubator for the temperature shift. In addition, the use of negative (ex. DMSO solvent for drug preparation) and positive (ex. heparin treatment) controls also help further establish the assays’ accuracy. The utility and applicability of such methods have been demonstrated in many antiviral studies^{26,30,31,40,41}. Note that while heparin is included as a control for all three assays in the context of the representative results, it typically blocks the initial virus binding rather than the ensuing fusion/entry step (as reflected by the data in Figure 2). Additional controls could also be used, such as neutralizing antibodies directed against the virus (for viral inactivation assay), antibodies that mask the cell surface receptors for the virus (for viral attachment assay), and membrane fusion inhibitors (for viral fusion/entry assay).

The assays described in this report, which are specific to the early stages of the viral infection, are useful in terms of application as secondary tests to characterize the mechanism of action of candidate drugs from primary screens which typically target the viral infection more broadly. Alternatively, they could also be incorporated in primary screens if one is specifically looking for inhibitors of early viral entry, including virus inactivating agents, viral attachment antagonists, and inhibitors to viral entry/fusion. In this case, their use allows a more focused and precise screen analysis for the identification of mechanism-specific antiviral candidates, which, in turn, would expedite downstream drug development.

The use of cell-based assays in identifying antiviral agents provides several important advantages compared to biochemical assays, including revealing potential off-target effects (such as cytotoxicity) and adding physiological relevance to the bioactivity of the test agents⁴². These issues are important considerations for deciding whether a candidate agent is of value for continuation in subsequent phases of drug development. Similarly, the early viral entry-specific assays described in this report allow examination of the drug effect on the distinct viral entry stage at the cellular level, and more specifically in the context of an authentic viral infection in vitro. The results obtained from such assays would therefore help better predict the antiviral efficacy of the test compounds and also identify potentially unwanted off-target effects against the host cell. One potential limitation though, is that an in vitro cell-based assay may not completely reflect the actual in vivo entry step in the context of a natural viral infection. Nonetheless, the assays presented in this protocol do serve as an analytical platform for mechanism-based identification and evaluation of novel antiviral agents.

The development of reporter viruses or reporter cell systems to quantitate the amount of viral infection has greatly facilitated cell-based screening and evaluation of antiviral compounds. Examples include the use of recombinant viruses carrying a reporter gene or by means of recombinant human cell lines containing a reporter gene driven by the specific virus promoter^31,43. In this report, the infection from luciferase-tagged HCV can be easily monitored by quantitating the reporter signal, thus facilitating data analysis. By incorporating these useful reporter-based tools, the early viral entry assays described here can essentially be adapted into high-throughput format for mechanism-based screening of small molecule libraries.

In conclusion, a protocol was described for assays dissecting the early viral entry as a means of identifying and evaluating mechanism-specific antiviral compounds. Such assays would be useful for discovering novel antagonists/inhibitors to viral entry and help expand the scope of antiviral agents for development as prophylactic and/or therapeutic treatments.