色素増感太陽電池用二酸化チタンのデジタル印刷

Conventional silicon solar cells are made from highly pure materials that require expensive and high-energy consuming specialist equipment. These conventional silicon cells incorporate a p-n junction that requires highly pure materials at the interface to generate electron-hole pairs. Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have a fundamentally different working principle, where charge generation takes place at the materials interface. This means that processing under vacuum, ultrahigh temperatures or the use of clean room facilities are not required¹. Therefore they are seen as a potentially low cost alternative; however up-scaling from small laboratory test cells into large prototypes for industrial manufacturing involves overcoming several issues including the rapid patterning of substrates.

Electronics manufacturing generally requires a degree of patterning, which is either achieved by masking or selective removal of the material after deposition. These steps can be removed through the use of “additive” digital printing techniques such as inkjet printing or spray coating. Digital printing is a promising method for direct deposition of functional materials for electronic devices. The technique can be described as printing from a digital-based pattern directly to a variety of substrates². They are non-contact methods, which will not damage or contaminate the substrate surface and deposit material only where it is required, resulting in little or no wastage³. These techniques have been highlighted as being ideally suited to being scaled up to high-volume production³. Since digital printing methods use liquid forms of materials dispersed in a solvent, it is critical to understand the deposition of ink to determine the applications of the technique.

DSSCs have three main components: a porous layer of wide bandgap metal oxide material, a dye that covers the particles, and a “charge transporter” that infiltrates the pores within the porous layer of semiconductor. These are sandwiched in between a transparent conductive electrode and a counter electrode⁴. The counter electrode is coated with a catalytic material for electron transfer, which in most cases is platinum. Under illumination, the dye molecules will absorb energy in the form of photons. The dye molecules then become excited and charge separation occurs at the interface of the titanium dioxide and the dye. Electrons are ejected into the adjacent metal oxide particles and ‘holes’ are left behind on the dye molecule. The injected electrons travel through the metal oxide particles and reach the transparent conductive electrode. When a load is connected, the electrons move to the counter electrode through the external circuit and are finally reunited with their counter charges through the redox couple present in the electrolyte¹. The nano-structured metal oxide layer within DSSCs plays a critical role in the overall performance of the cell, with material choice, processing methods and nature of the structure all having influencing factors^5-10. One of the most important requirements for the photoanode is that it needs to have an extremely large surface area. This is achieved through the deposition of nanoparticle materials, commonly TiO₂^1,11. This has been fabricated by countless different processes, however wet coating techniques such as screen-printing and doctor-blading, are still the most popular approach^9,12,13.

Inkjet technology is a potential manufacturing route for dye-sensitized solar cells. It uses the movement of a piezoelectric crystal to expel a fixed quantity of liquid through a nozzle onto the desired substrate. This deposition method allows material to be jetted very accurately but also at high frequency with a potentially high print speed or deposition rate. Inkjet technology is sensitive to the viscosity of the ink used and this was previously a barrier to the development of functional inks. Recent work in the development of solvents suitable for ink formulation has helped to alleviate this problem, and printing of electronic components using 2D layered materials such as graphene has been demonstrated¹⁴. The viscosity of nanoparticle suspensions such as these has been found to depend on the nanoparticle size and concentration¹⁵. High concentrations of nanoparticles result in higher viscosities, therefore particle loadings are usually around 10 wt% to avoid nozzle blockages¹⁶, however higher concentrations have been achieved¹⁷.

The key advantages of inkjet technology include it being non-contact, additive patterning and maskless¹⁸. The latter two attributes are due to the ability to position many nozzles together on one or more printheads, with each nozzle separately addressable by the control software. This allows highly complex, multi-layered patterns to be created very rapidly as the printheads move across the substrate. No masking between materials or layers is required as the position of each ink drop is accurately controlled, in some systems to an accuracy of ~1.5 µm¹⁹. One of the key benefits is that inkjet technology is mature, with significant development carried out in the latter half of the twentieth century. The result is that the inkjet is a very scalable technology, with roll-to-roll systems capable of printing accurately onto flexible substrates at rates of many meters per second. Traditionally this was used for high volume production, e.g., newspapers. However, developments in technology have allowed the inkjet to be used in roll-to-roll production of electronic circuits using nanoparticulate silver inks²⁰. The inkjet is therefore an attractive process for the potential production of dye-sensitized solar cells by digital printing.