Safety Considerations: Wear safety glasses or goggles and laboratory gloves at all times when performing preparatory work with chemical solutions and when handling wet gels or catalytic aerogel materials. Handle propylene oxide, tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS), ethanol, methanol, ammonia, nanoparticles and solutions containing any of these within a fume hood. Read Safety Data Sheets (SDS) for all chemicals, including nanoparticles, prior to working with them. Wear a particulate mask when crushing aerogel samples and during loading and unloading of the test cell. Wear safety glasses or goggles when operating the hydraulic hot press or catalytic test bed. Tie back long hair and do not wear loose clothing (scarves, for example) when working with the hot press. As noted in our previous protocol17, employ a safety shield around the hot press, properly vent the hot press and make certain that there are no ignition sources nearby. Provide correct ventilation of the test bed and all gas exhausts and. Install NO and CO gas monitors in the operator space associated with the catalytic test bed. Wear oven gloves when removing or replacing a hot test cell.
1. Fabrication of Alumina-Copper Sol Gels using Copper Salts
Note: Recipes for alumina-copper (Al-Cu) sol gels are shown in Table 1. All solution preparations are performed within a fume hood.
2. Fabrication of Silica-Copper Sol Gels using Copper Salts
Note: The recipe for silica-copper (Si-Cu) sol gels is shown in Table 2. All solution preparations are performed within a fume hood.
3. Processing Alumina-Copper and Silica-Copper Sol Gels made using Copper Salts into Aerogels via Rapid Supercritical Extraction
4. Fabrication of Copper-Nanoparticle-Doped Silica Aerogel Monoliths (Si-Cu NP)
5. Operating the Union Catalytic Test Bed
Chemical | Amount (Impregnation Method) | Amount (Co-Precursor Method) |
AlCl3•7H2O | 5.92 g | 4.52 g |
Cu(NO3)2•3H2O | 1.4 g | 1.4 g |
Propylene oxide | 8 mL | 9.5 mL |
Reagent-grade ethanol | 40 mL | 40 mL |
Absolute ethanol | 120 mL | 120 mL |
Table 1. Recipe for Preparation of Alumina-Copper Sol Gels.
Chemical | Amount (Impregnation Method) |
TMOS | 8.5 mL |
MeOH | 27.5 mL |
H2O | 3.6 mL |
1.5-M NH3 | 1.35 mL |
Absolute Ethanol | 60 mL |
Cu(NO3)2•3H2O | 0.55 g |
Table 2. Recipe for Preparation of Silica-Copper Sol Gels.
Step # | Temperature (°C) | Temp Rate (°C/min) | Force (kN) | Force Rate (kN/min) | Dwell Time (min) |
1 | 30 | 300 | 200 | 3000 | 0.25 |
2 | 250 | 2.2 | 200 | — | 30 |
3 | 250 | — | 4.5 | 4.5 | 15 |
4 | 30 | 2.2 | 4.5 | — | 1 |
5 | END |
Table 3. Hot-Press Extraction Program Parameters for Alumina-Copper and Silica-Copper Sol Gels.
Step # | Temperature (°C) | Temp Rate (°C/min) | Force (kN) | Force Rate (kN/min) | Dwell Time (min) |
1 | OFF | — | 90 | 3000 | 10 |
2 | END |
Table 4. Hot-Press Sealing Program Parameters.
Step # | Temperature (°C) | Temp Rate (°C/min) | Force (kN) | Force Rate (kN/min) | Dwell Time (min) |
1 | 30 | 300 | 180 | 3000 | 0.25 |
2 | 290 | 1.6 | 180 | — | 30 |
3 | 290 | — | 4.5 | 4.5 | 15 |
4 | 40 | 1.6 | 4.5 | — | 1 |
5 | END |
Table 5. Hot-Press Extraction Program Parameters for Copper-nanoparticle-doped Silica aerogels.
Chemical | Amount (mL) | Amount (g) |
TMOS | 12.75 | 13.04 |
Methanol | 41.25 | 32.63 |
Water | 3.9 | 3.9 |
Nanodispersion | 1.5 | 1.5 |
Ammonia | 0.2 | 0.15 |
Table 6. Recipe for Fabrication of 5 wt% Copper-nanoparticle-doped Silica Aerogels.
Photographic images of the resulting aerogels are presented in Figure 2. Because the wet gels were broken into pieces prior to solvent exchange, the Al-Cu IMP and Si-Cu IMP aerogels are in small, irregularly shaped monolithic pieces. It is clear from the coloration of these samples that the aerogels contain copper species and that variations in copper speciation and/or ligand structure occur within the materials. Al-Cu IMP aerogels (Figure 2a) appear red to green-gray in color11. Al-Cu CoP aerogels (not shown) are green to green-gray in color. Si-Cu IMP aerogels have a mottled appearance, with red, yellow and green colors observed (Figure 2b). Si-Cu NP aerogels are monolithic with colors that vary with weight percent of nanoparticle and also vary from well to well in the mold, indicating some variation in processing conditions experienced at different locations in the mold.10 For example, Si-Cu NP aerogel monoliths prepared from the Cu+2 dispersion at 3 wt%, and processed in the same batch, are yellow, purple, pink (Figure 2c) and green (not shown).
Table 7 lists representative physical characteristics of the as-prepared copper-containing aerogels. For the Si-Cu NP aerogels the surface area decreases as the weight percent of nanoparticles increases, as described in Anderson et al.10
Evidence of entrapment of copper in the aerogels is shown in the SEM/EDX images of Figure 3 and the XRD patterns of Figure 4. Figures 3a and 3b show SEM/EDX images of the Si-Cu NP aerogel prepared using the Cu+2 nanodispersion. A ca. 400-nm-diameter nanoparticle containing copper is shown, indicating that some agglomeration of the 25- to 55-nm nanoparticles in the original nanodispersion has occurred. Figure 3c shows smaller (ca. 50 nm) nanoparticles dispersed in the Al-Cu IMP aerogel.
The XRD patterns of the as-prepared Si-Cu IMP and Si-Cu NP aerogels (Figure 4, lower traces) contain peaks corresponding to metallic copper at 2θ = 43, 50 and 74°, indicating that alcohothermal reduction of the copper species occurred during RSCE processing of the gels10,11. The as-prepared Al-Cu IMP aerogel pattern (Figure 4, top trace) shows XRD peaks consistent with the pseudoboehmite form of alumina and a copper(II)-containing species11. After heat treatment above 700 °C, all of these copper-containing aerogels have XRD peaks (not shown) indicative of copper(II) oxide10,11.
The data in Figure 5 show that the copper-containing alumina aerogels are capable of catalyzing reactions that can eliminate each of the three major pollutants of concern in gasoline engine exhaust (CO, NO, and HCs) under the conditions tested11. Figure 6 demonstrates the catalytic ability in copper-containing silica aerogels10,11 and thereby provides evidence that the catalytic capabilities of metal-doped aerogels are robust (i.e. activity is demonstrated with the active copper species included in more than one aerogel matrix) and tailorable. The catalytic activity appears to depend on the details of the copper (speciation, particle size, loading level, etc.), how copper is introduced to the aerogel (impregnation, co-precursor, doping with copper nanoparticles) and the underlying aerogel itself (i.e. silica vs. alumina). The details of how these parameters and interactions affect catalytic performance are not yet well understood, but they do indicate that there is a significant "design space" for tailoring aerogel catalysts to specific functions, and that this is a rich area for future work. Further discussion of these results can be found in previously published work10,11,23.
Aerogel | Density (g/mL) | Surface Area (m2/g) |
Cu-Si Imp | 0.11 | 780 ± 50 |
Cu-Al Imp | 0.09 – 0.11 | 390 – 430 |
Si-Cu NP | 0.08 – 0.10 | 200 – 500 |
Table 7. Representative Physical Characterization Data for the As-prepared Aerogels.
Figure 2. Photographic images of copper-containing aerogels. (a) Al-Cu IMP; (b) Si-Cu IMP; (c) Si-Cu NP (made from 3 wt% Cu+2). Note that variations in color occur within aerogels fabricated in the same batch. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 3. SEM micrographs of as-prepared aerogels. (a) EDX backscattering image of 3 Si-Cu NP (made from 3 wt% Cu+2) (scale bar in bottom right corner: 800 nm); (b) EDX image of Cu signal for sample as in (a) (scale bar in bottom right corner: 800 nm); (c) SEM image of Al-Cu IMP aerogel (scale bar in bottom left corner: 200 nm). All images taken at 50kX magnification. Figures 3a and 3b have been reprinted from Anderson et al.10 Figure 3c has been reprinted from Tobin et al.11 Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 4. XRD patterns of as-prepared aerogels. The Al-Cu IMP aerogel shows evidence of pseudoboehmite (B) and crystals of a copper(II) salt (X). Both types of Si-Cu aerogels (IMP and NP) show evidence of metallic copper (Cu). Note the x-axis scale represents reflected beam for data collected using a copper X-ray source tube; y-axis scale not indicated because patterns are offset for clarity. This figure has been modified from Anderson et al.10 and Tobin et al.11 Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 5. Conversion of HCs, NO and CO for a copper-containing alumina aerogel prepared via the impregnation method. (a) In the absence of oxygen (300 ppm NO, 0.5% CO, 6.0% CO2 200 ppm propane for HC) and (b) in the presence of oxygen (0.36% O2, 295 ppm NO, 0.49% CO, 5.9% CO2 197 ppm propane for HC). Tests were performed using a space velocity of 20 s-1. Error bars represent the standard deviation in five runs. Lines are included as an aid to the eye. Shaded regions (pink for NO, green-brown for CO on left; blue for HC and green-gray for CO on right) indicate the conversion activity measured for an inert (silica) aerogel. This figure is reprinted from Tobin et al.11 Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 6. Conversion of NO and CO for copper-nanoparticle-doped silica aerogels. (a) In the absence of oxygen (300 ppm NO, 0.5% CO, 6.0% CO2 200 ppm propane for HC) and (b) in the presence of oxygen (0.36% O2, 295 ppm NO, 0.49% CO, 5.9% CO2 197 ppm propane for HC). Tests were performed using a space velocity of 20 s-1.Three different types of nanoparticles were employed (Cu0, Cu+1, Cu+2) with weight percent as noted in legend. Data for unmodified silica aerogel and Si-Cu IMP aerogels are also included from Tobin et al.11 for comparison. Error bars represent the standard deviation of 2 or 3 runs. Lines are included as an aid to the eye. This figure is reprinted from Anderson et al.10
Variable micropipettor, 100-1000 µL | Manufactured by Eppendorf, purchased from Fisher Scientific www.fishersci.com | S304665 | Any 100-1000 µL pipettor is suitable. |
Variable Pipettor, 2.5-10 mL | Manufactured by Eppendorf, purchased from Fisher Scientific www.fishersci.com | 21-379-25 | Any variable pipettor is suitable. |
Pasteur pipettes | FisherScientific | 13-678-6A | |
Syringe | Purchased from Fisher Scientific | Z181390 syringe with Z261297 needle | |
Digital balance | OHaus Explorer Pro | Any digital balance is suitable. | |
Beakers | Purchased from Fisher Scientific | Any glass beaker is suitable. | |
Graduated Cylinder | Purchased from Fisher Scientific | Any glass graduated cylinder is suitable. | |
Magnetic Plate/Stirrer | FisherScientific Isotemp | SP88854200P | Any magnetic plate/stirrer is suitable. |
Ultrasonic Cleaner | FisherScientific FS6 | 153356 | Any sonicator is suitable. |
Mold | Fabricated in House | Fabricate from cold-rolled steel or stainless steel. | |
Hydraulic Hot Press | Tetrahedron www.tetrahedronassociates.com | MTP-14 | Any hot press with temperature and force control will work. Needs maximum temperature of ~550 F and maximum force of 24 tons. |
UCAT (Union Catalytic Testbed) | Fabricated in House | Described in detail in reference #21: Bruno, B.A., Anderson, A.M., Carroll, M.K., Brockmann, P., Swanton, T., Ramphal, I.A., Palace, T. Benchtop Scale Testing of Aerogel Catalysts. SAE Technical Paper 2016-01-920 (2016). | |
Bar 97 Gas | Praxair | MS_BAR97ZA-D7 |
Protocols for preparing and testing catalytic aerogels by incorporating metal species into silica and alumina aerogel platforms are presented. Three preparation methods are described: (a) the incorporation of metal salts into silica or alumina wet gels using an impregnation method; (b) the incorporation of metal salts into alumina wet gels using a co-precursor method; and (c) the addition of metal nanoparticles directly into a silica aerogel precursor mixture. The methods utilize a hydraulic hot press, which allows for rapid (<6 h) supercritical extraction and results in aerogels of low density (0.10 g/mL) and high surface area (200-800 m2/g). While the work presented here focuses on the use of copper salts and copper nanoparticles, the approach can be implemented using other metal salts and nanoparticles. A protocol for testing the three-way catalytic ability of these aerogels for automotive pollution mitigation is also presented. This technique uses custom-built equipment, the Union Catalytic Testbed (UCAT), in which a simulated exhaust mixture is passed over an aerogel sample at a controlled temperature and flow rate. The system is capable of measuring the ability of the catalytic aerogels, under both oxidizing and reducing conditions, to convert CO, NO and unburned hydrocarbons (HCs) to less harmful species (CO2, H2O and N2). Example catalytic results are presented for the aerogels described.
Protocols for preparing and testing catalytic aerogels by incorporating metal species into silica and alumina aerogel platforms are presented. Three preparation methods are described: (a) the incorporation of metal salts into silica or alumina wet gels using an impregnation method; (b) the incorporation of metal salts into alumina wet gels using a co-precursor method; and (c) the addition of metal nanoparticles directly into a silica aerogel precursor mixture. The methods utilize a hydraulic hot press, which allows for rapid (<6 h) supercritical extraction and results in aerogels of low density (0.10 g/mL) and high surface area (200-800 m2/g). While the work presented here focuses on the use of copper salts and copper nanoparticles, the approach can be implemented using other metal salts and nanoparticles. A protocol for testing the three-way catalytic ability of these aerogels for automotive pollution mitigation is also presented. This technique uses custom-built equipment, the Union Catalytic Testbed (UCAT), in which a simulated exhaust mixture is passed over an aerogel sample at a controlled temperature and flow rate. The system is capable of measuring the ability of the catalytic aerogels, under both oxidizing and reducing conditions, to convert CO, NO and unburned hydrocarbons (HCs) to less harmful species (CO2, H2O and N2). Example catalytic results are presented for the aerogels described.
Protocols for preparing and testing catalytic aerogels by incorporating metal species into silica and alumina aerogel platforms are presented. Three preparation methods are described: (a) the incorporation of metal salts into silica or alumina wet gels using an impregnation method; (b) the incorporation of metal salts into alumina wet gels using a co-precursor method; and (c) the addition of metal nanoparticles directly into a silica aerogel precursor mixture. The methods utilize a hydraulic hot press, which allows for rapid (<6 h) supercritical extraction and results in aerogels of low density (0.10 g/mL) and high surface area (200-800 m2/g). While the work presented here focuses on the use of copper salts and copper nanoparticles, the approach can be implemented using other metal salts and nanoparticles. A protocol for testing the three-way catalytic ability of these aerogels for automotive pollution mitigation is also presented. This technique uses custom-built equipment, the Union Catalytic Testbed (UCAT), in which a simulated exhaust mixture is passed over an aerogel sample at a controlled temperature and flow rate. The system is capable of measuring the ability of the catalytic aerogels, under both oxidizing and reducing conditions, to convert CO, NO and unburned hydrocarbons (HCs) to less harmful species (CO2, H2O and N2). Example catalytic results are presented for the aerogels described.