Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and formation of different bonds. Chemical bonding is central to chemistry; it explains how atoms or ions bond together to form molecules. It explains why some bonds are strong and others are weak, or why one carbon bonds with two oxygens and not three; why water is H2O and not H4O.
Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence shell, and an anion (a negative ion) forms when a neutral atom gains one or more electrons in its valence shell. Compounds composed of ions are called ionic compounds (or salts), and their constituent ions are held together by ionic bonds: electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged cations and anions.
The properties of ionic compounds shed some light on the nature of ionic bonds. Ionic solids exhibit a crystalline structure and tend to be rigid and brittle; they also tend to have high melting and boiling points, which suggests that ionic bonds are very strong. Ionic solids are also poor conductors of electricity for the same reason—the strength of ionic bonds prevents ions from moving freely in the solid-state. Most ionic solids, however, dissolve readily in water. Once dissolved or melted, ionic compounds are excellent conductors of electricity and heat because the ions can move about freely.
Nonmetal atoms frequently form covalent bonds with other nonmetal atoms. Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between atoms and are attracted by the nuclei of both atoms. If the atoms that form a covalent bond are identical, as in H2, Cl2, and other diatomic molecules, then the electrons in the bond must be shared equally. This is referred to as a pure covalent bond. When the atoms linked by a covalent bond are different, the bonding electrons are shared, but no longer equally. Instead, the bonding electrons are more attracted to one atom than the other, giving rise to a shift of electron density toward that atom. This unequal distribution of electrons is known as a polar covalent bond.
Compounds that contain covalent bonds exhibit different physical properties than ionic compounds. Because the attraction between molecules, which are electrically neutral, is weaker than that between electrically charged ions, covalent compounds generally have much lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds. Furthermore, whereas ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity when dissolved in water, most covalent compounds are insoluble in water; since they are electrically neutral, they are poor conductors of electricity in any state.
Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Drüde called the 'Electron Sea Model'. Based on the low ionization energies of metals, the model states that metal atoms lose their valence electrons easily and become cations. These valence electrons create a pool of delocalized electrons surrounding the cations over the entire metal.
Metallic solids, such as crystals of copper, aluminum, and iron. are formed by metal atoms, and all of them exhibit high thermal and electrical conductivity, metallic luster, and malleability. Many are very hard and quite strong. Because of their malleability (the ability to deform under pressure or hammering), they do not shatter and, therefore, make useful construction materials. The melting points of metals vary widely. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature, and the alkali metals melt below 200 °C. Several post-transition metals also have low melting points, whereas the transition metals melt at temperatures above 1000 °C. These differences reflect differences in the strength of metallic bonding amongst the metals.
This text is adapted from Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 7.1: Ionic Bonding, Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 7.2: Covalent Bonding, and Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 10.5: The Solid State of Matter.
