衡量幼儿自距离效应的实验范式
Summary
建立了一个实验范式, 以衡量幼儿 (4-6) 自我距离的影响。自我距离是一个过程, 通过个人采取一个不那么自我中心的观点。这种范式被用来考察自我距离对幼儿自我调节的影响。
Abstract
自我距离 (即, 通过采用不那么自我中心的观点在自我和刺激之间创造精神距离) 已被研究为一种方式, 以改善青少年和成人的情绪调节。这些研究指示青少年和成年人在从事自律任务和思考过去和未来事件时, 使用视觉图像或语言与自我创造距离。例如, 成年人被要求从第一人称 (无距离) 或第三人称 (自我距离) 的角度回忆过去的负面情感经历。这些研究表明, 自我距离的视角可以让成年人在回忆负面情绪时更有适应地应对。然而, 与成人一起使用的自我距离范式在发育上并不适合幼儿。这种修改后的自我距离范式包括指导孩子们在完成自我调节任务的同时, 从不同的角度思考自己的想法、感受和行为, 这些角度与自己的距离各不相同。这个范式包括随机分配孩子使用三种视角中的一种: 自我沉浸、第三人称或范例。在自我沉浸的情况下, 孩子们被要求用第一人称视角思考自己 (比如 “我感觉怎么样”), 与自己没有距离。在第三人称条件下, 要求儿童使用第三人称视角 (例如, “[孩子的名字]感觉如何”) 与自我保持距离。在榜样条件下, 与自我最大的距离是通过要求孩子们假装是媒体角色, 并思考这个角色的思想和感受 (例如, “蝙蝠侠感觉怎么样”)。使用4-6 儿童自我距离范式的研究发现, 随着与自我距离的增加 (自我浸没 < 第三人 < 榜样), 孩子们在自我调节任务上的表现会更好。这些发现表明, 在自我距离协议中实施的策略可能有助于将其纳入对幼儿的自律干预。
Introduction
自我调节是故意控制自己的思想、行为和情绪的能力。自律涉及 “反应” 和 “故意” 过程之间的相互作用, 是一个一般的概念, 包括几种不同类型的技能, 如情绪调节、执行功能、毅力和费力的控制 (即,父母报告的气质措施的自我调节)1。几项研究发现, 自我调节与许多重要的认知和社会结果2、3 有关并具有预测性。此外, 早期的自律技能被发现可以预测长期的财富和健康结果4。此前的这项研究强调了及早干预的重要性, 以提高幼儿的自我调节技能, 从而在以后取得更积极的生活成果。
改善幼儿自我调节的一个策略是自我距离。自我距离是指通过让个人从局外人的角度思考自己的想法、感受或行为来创造自我和刺激之间的心理距离5。自我距离是心理距离的一种形式。心理距离是指在刺激和反应之间创造心理距离。这种距离使个人能够更好地控制自己的情绪、行动和思想6,7.以往关于与儿童心理距离的研究大多集中在通过改变任务刺激来创造距离上。例如, 让孩子们以抽象的方式思考食物, 比如想象棉花糖在延迟满足任务8期间是云, 或者在满足任务中用符号取代实际的治疗 (例如, 用一堆岩石来代表一堆果冻豆)。反向应急任务9,10促进更好的性能。然而, 一些研究以其他方式造成了心理上的距离, 比如让孩子为另一个人而不是自己做决定, 或者考虑一个能在任务中表现好的人, 比如超人 12.这些研究还显示, 心理距离对孩子延迟满足的能力有好处,1 1、1 2.
虽然自我距离似乎是改善儿童自我调节不同方面的另一个有希望的方式, 但大多数关于自我距离的研究都是与成年人进行的。与成年人的自我距离研究主要集中在情绪调节领域。在这些研究中, 成年人被要求使用视觉图像或语言来创造与自我的距离。例如, 他们被指示回忆过去的事件, 通过他们自己的眼睛 (非距离) 或从外人的角度或似乎他们是 “墙上的苍蝇” (自我距离)13, 唤起负面情绪,14,15. 在其他研究中, 要求成年人在思考过去的负面情绪时使用第一人称 (非距离) 或第三人称 (自我距离), 同时考虑过去的负面情绪16、17、18、19 ,20,21。这些研究表明, 采取距离的视角可以帮助成年人专注于自己感受到的感受, 而不是专注于自己的负面情绪, 在回忆这些过去的负面情绪时, 能更好地应对13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21岁
最近, 通过修改成人文献中使用的自我距离条件, 使其适合22岁的幼儿的发展, 并创造了一种额外的自我距离条件, 从而为儿童创造了一种自我距离的范式基于孩子们对角色扮演的爱 23。这种自我沉浸的情况是从成人文学中接受的, 意在引起夸张的自我中心或第一人称视角。从理论上讲, 自我浸没的状况应该比不给孩子任何疏远指示的控制条件更不利于孩子的表现。在控制条件下, 孩子们可能会默认接受第一人称视角, 但他们并不像处于自我浸没状态的孩子那样沉浸在这种视角中。在自我浸没和控制的条件下, 参与者不应该创造与自我的距离。第三人称条件通过要求孩子用自己的名字思考自己, 与自我创造了一定的距离。这种情况可以让孩子们从距离的角度思考自己的想法、感受和行为。最后, 通过研究过去对儿童进行的角色扮演研究, 例如卡尼奥尔和同事12的研究, 要求孩子们在延迟时假装超人, 创造了一个被称为 “榜样条件” 的条件。满足的任务。在样本条件下, 孩子们被指示通过假装是媒体角色来看待另一个人。有孩子假装是别人, 与人的关系比第三人称的情况还要远, 因为它要求孩子们把自己当成别人, 把自己当成有不同想法、感受和技能的人。它还允许孩子们用他们对角色扮演的热爱, 角色扮演在童年 23岁时达到高峰。在目标任务期间, 儿童会得到口头或视觉上的提醒 (例如, 贴纸、服装), 提醒他们自己的自我距离状况。允许儿童在执行自我调节任务时使用不同的自我距离策略, 可避免儿童不得不追溯记忆他们需要实行自我调节的情况。虽然成人文献允许研究人员研究采取非距离和距离的视角之间的区别, 但这种儿童自我距离的范式允许孩子们从自我走到更远的距离 (自我浸没,第三人称, 也是典范), 并允许研究人员测试这些与自我不同距离对孩子自我调节的有效性。
在本文中, 我们详细介绍了自我距离范式, 包括所需的材料和与幼儿一起使用这种范式的过程。此外, 我们还讨论了利用自我距离范式来研究其对幼儿 (3-6) 自律的影响的研究结果。最后, 我们讨论了在未来的研究中使用自距离范式的方法、对范式的潜在修改以及使用范式的含义。
孩子们在使用自我距离指令时完成的目标任务因研究重点的不同而不同。下面的协议演示了如何在完成任务24期间使用自距离范式.然而, 自我距离范式可以应用于一些涉及孩子努力的行为任务。这项任务必须具有足够的挑战性, 以便并非所有儿童都能成功, 即使没有任务的操纵, 但不会远远超出他们的发展水平, 使他们在任何情况下都无法理解指示或执行任务。下面的例子说明了典型的4岁和6岁的24岁儿童的自我距离范式。
Protocol
Representative Results
Discussion
这里描述的儿童自我距离范式很重要, 因为它在发育上是适当的, 并利用幼儿对角色扮演的热爱 23。此前的研究表明, 这种方法可以成功地在4至6岁的孩子身上实施, 通过假装是流行的媒体角色而创造与自我理论上最遥远的孩子, 可以在自我调节任务比孩子谁使用第一人称的角度22,24,25。
该?…
Divulgations
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
使用这里描述的自我距离范式的研究得到了约翰·邓普顿基金会 (215464) 向安吉拉·l·达克沃思、伊森·克罗斯和斯蒂芬妮·卡尔森提供的赠款的支持。作者还要感谢参与这些研究的家庭和儿童, 以及帮助数据收集和编码的本科研究助理。
Materials
| Child-sized table | |||
| 2 Child-sized chairs (one for child and one for experimenter) | |||
| Camera to record children working on the task for coding their behaviors later | |||
| A laminated sheet of paper with pictures of four media characters that are popular with children of the study’s age range in their specific culture | In past studies, Batman, Superman, Bob the Builder, Rapunzel, Elsa (Frozen), and Dora the Explorer have been used. | ||
| Props associated with each media character that children can wear while working on the target task | For example, a cape for Batman, a tool belt for Bob the Builder, a tiara for Rapunzel, and a backpack for Dora the Explorer. | ||
| Laptop/computer to play audio reminders if audio reminders are used | These recordings should say the following for each condition every 60 seconds: Self-immersed: "Am I working hard?" Third- person: "Is [child’s name] working hard?" Exemplar: " Is [media character’s name] working hard?" This is one option for reminding children of their distancing condition. The type of reminder used will depend on the target task and if the experimenter will be present in the room during the target task. |
||
| Plain stickers to write "I" or the child's name to be used as reminders for the self-immersed and third-person condition | Stickers can be placed on the apparatus being used or on children's hands to remind them of their self-distancing strategy. These stickers would have the letter "I" for the self-immersed condition or their name spelled out for the third-person condition. This is one option for reminding children of their distancing condition. The type of reminder used will depend on the target task and if the experimenter will be present in the room during the target task. | ||
| Stickers with pictures of 4 media characters chosen for exemplar condition | Stickers with pictures of the media characters used in the study can be purchased and placed on the apparatus being or on the children's hands to remind them of their self-distancing strategy. This is one option for reminding children of their distancing condition. The type of reminder used will depend on the target task and if the experimenter will be present in the room during the target task. | ||
| Ipad or tablet with developmentally approariate and entertaining game for children in the age range being studied downloaded onto it | "Where's My Water" is one example of an app that can be used for 4-6-yea-olds. The app should be developmentally appropariate for the age range being studied and a game that children of that age want to play. This is only needed if the perseverance target task is used. | ||
| Laptop/computer with go/no-go task program described in the protocol | This is only needed if the perseverance target task is used. | ||
| Cardboard keyboard overlay to cover keys that are not needed for the go/no-go task | This is only needed if the perseverance target task is used. | ||
| Sticker illustrating iPad game to put on the "break" key on the computer keyboard | This is only needed if the perseverance target task is used. |
References
- Nigg, J. T. Annual research review: On the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 58, 361-383 (2017).
- Blair, C., Razza, P. R. Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development. 78 (2), 647-663 (2007).
- Howse, R. B., Calkins, S. D., Anastopoulos, A. D., Keane, S. P., Shelton, T. L. Regulatory contributors to children’s kindergarten achievement. Early Education and Development. 14 (1), 101-120 (2003).
- Moffitt, T. E., et al. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (7), 2693-2698 (2011).
- Kross, E., Ayduk, O. Making meaning out of negative experiences by self-distancing. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 20 (3), 187-191 (2011).
- Sigel, I. The distancing hypothesis: A causal hypothesis for the acquisition of representational thought. Early schooling: The national debate. , 129-150 (1970).
- Liberman, N., Trope, Y. Traversing psychological distance. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 18 (7), 364-369 (2014).
- Mischel, W., Baker, N. Cognitive appraisals and transformations in delay behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 31 (2), 254-261 (1975).
- Carlson, S. M., Davis, A. C., Leach, J. G. Less is more executive function and symbolic representation in preschool children. Psychological Science. 16 (8), 609-616 (2005).
- Apperly, I. A., Carroll, D. J. How do symbols affect 3-to 4-year-olds’ executive function? Evidence from a reverse-contingency task. Developmental Science. 12 (6), 1070-1082 (2009).
- Prencipe, A., Zelazo, P. D. Development of affective decision making for self and Other: Evidence for the integration of first-and third-person perspectives. Psychological Science. 16 (7), 501-505 (2005).
- Karniol, R., et al. Why superman can wait: Cognitive self-transformation in the delay of gratification paradigm. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 40 (2), 307-317 (2011).
- Kross, E., Ayduk, O. Self-distancing: Theory, research, and current directions. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 55, 81-136 (2017).
- Kross, E., Ayduk, O., Mischel, W. When asking “why” does not hurt” Distinguishing rumination from reflective processing of negative emotions. Psychological Science. 16, 709-715 (2005).
- Kross, E., Ayduk, O. Making meaning out of negative experiences by self-distancing. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 20 (3), 187-191 (2011).
- Kross, E., et al. Self-talk as a regulatory mechanism: How you do it matters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 106 (2), 304-324 (2014).
- Grossmann, I., Kross, E. Exploring Solomon’s paradox: Self-distancing eliminates the self-other asymmetry in wise reasoning about close relationships in younger and older adults. Psychological Science. 25 (8), 1571-1580 (2014).
- Kross, E., et al. Third-person self-talk reduces Ebola worry and risk perception by enhancing rational thinking. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being. 9 (3), 387-409 (2017).
- Moser, J. S., et al. Third-person self-talk facilitates emotional control without engaging cognitive control: Converging evidence from ERP and fMRI. Scientific Reports. 7 (4519), 1-9 (2017).
- Nook, E. C., Schleider, J. L., Somerville, L. H. A linguistic signature of psychological distancing in emotion regulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 146 (3), 337-346 (2017).
- Dolcos, S., Albarracin, D. The inner speech of behavioral regulation: Intentions and task performance strengthen when you talk to yourself as a You. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 44, 636-642 (2014).
- White, R. E., Carlson, S. M. What would Batman do? Self-distancing improves executive function in young children. Developmental Science. 19, 419-426 (2016).
- Singer, D. G., Singer, J. L. . The house of make-believe: Children’s play and the developing imagination. , (1990).
- White, R. E., et al. The “Batman effect”: Improving perseverance in young children. Child Development. 88 (5), 1563-1571 (2017).
- Grenell, A., et al. Individual differences in the effectiveness of self-distancing for young children’s emotion regulation. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 37 (1), 84-100 (2019).
- Grenell, A., Vaisarova, J., Carlson, S. M. The effects of character competency on psychological distancing in young children. Poster presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. , (2017).
