Cartilage repair represents an unmet medical challenge and cell-based approaches to engineer human articular cartilage are a promising solution. Here, we describe three-dimensional (3D) biomimetic hydrogels as an ideal tool for the expansion and maturation of human articular chondrocytes.
Human articular cartilage is highly susceptible to damage and has limited self-repair and regeneration potential. Cell-based strategies to engineer cartilage tissue offer a promising solution to repair articular cartilage. To select the optimal cell source for tissue repair, it is important to develop an appropriate culture platform to systematically examine the biological and biomechanical differences in the tissue-engineered cartilage by different cell sources. Here we applied a three-dimensional (3D) biomimetic hydrogel culture platform to systematically examine cartilage regeneration potential of juvenile, adult, and osteoarthritic (OA) chondrocytes. The 3D biomimetic hydrogel consisted of synthetic component poly(ethylene glycol) and bioactive component chondroitin sulfate, which provides a physiologically relevant microenvironment for in vitro culture of chondrocytes. In addition, the scaffold may be potentially used for cell delivery for cartilage repair in vivo. Cartilage tissue engineered in the scaffold can be evaluated using quantitative gene expression, immunofluorescence staining, biochemical assays, and mechanical testing. Utilizing these outcomes, we were able to characterize the differential regenerative potential of chondrocytes of varying age, both at the gene expression level and in the biochemical and biomechanical properties of the engineered cartilage tissue. The 3D culture model could be applied to investigate the molecular and functional differences among chondrocytes and progenitor cells from different stages of normal or aberrant development.
With its limited self-repair potential, human articular cartilage undergoes frequent irreversible damages. Extensive efforts are currently focused on the development of efficient cell-based approaches for treatment of articular cartilage injuries. The success of these cell-based therapies is highly dependent on the selection of an optimal cell source and the maintenance of its regenerative potential. Chondrocytes are a common cell source for cartilage repair, but they are limited in supply and can de-differentiate during in vitro expansion in 2D monolayer culture thereby limiting their generation of hyaline cartilage 1.
The aim of this protocol is to establish a 3-dimensional hydrogel platform for an in vitro comparative study of human chondrocytes from different ages and disease state. Unlike conventional two-dimensional (2D) culture, three-dimensional (3D) hydrogels allow chondrocytes to maintain their morphology and phenotype and provides a physiologically relevant environment enabling chondrocytes to produce cartilage tissue 2,3. In addition to providing a 3D physical structure for chondrocyte culture, hydrogels mimic the function of native cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM). Specifically, the inclusion of chondroitin sulfate methacrylate provides a potential reservoir for secreted paracrine factors 4 and enables cell-mediated degradation and matrix turnover 5. Although many 3D hydrogel culture systems have been utilized widely in various studies including agarose and alginate gels, we have used a biomimetic 3D culture system that has some distinct advantages for chondrocyte culture. Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is an abundant component in articular cartilage and the PEG-CS hydrogels have been shown to maintain and even enhance chondrogenic phenotype and facilitate cell-mediated matrix degradation and turnover 2,5. In addition, the mechanical properties of the hydrogel scaffold can be easily modulated by changing concentration of PEG and hence can be utilized to further enhance the regeneration potential of chondrocytes or a related cell type 6,7. PEG/CSMA is also biocompatible and hence has the potential for a direct clinical application in cartilage defects for example. The limitation for this system is its complexity and the use of photopolymerization that can potentially affect cell viability as compared to simpler systems like agarose, however the advantages for the chondrocyte culture outweigh the potential limitations.
The 3D hydrogel culture is compatible with conventional assay for evaluation of cell phenotype (gene expression, protein immunostaining) and functional outcome (quantification of cartilage matrix production, mechanical testing). This favorable 3D environment was tested to compare the tissue regeneration potential of human chondrocytes from three different aged populations in long-term 3D cultures.
The outcomes were evaluated via both phenotypic and functional assays. Juvenile, adult and OA chondrocytes showed differential responses in the 3D biomimetic hydrogel culture. After 3 and 6 weeks, chondrogenic gene expression was upregulated in juvenile and adult chondrocytes but was downregulated in OA chondrocytes. Deposition of cartilage tissue components including aggrecan, type II collagen, and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) was high for juvenile and adult chondrocytes but not for OA chondrocytes. The compressive moduli of the resulting cartilage constructs also exhibited similar trends. In conclusion, both juvenile and adult chondrocytes exhibited chondrogenic and cartilage matrix disposition up to 6 weeks of 3D culture in hydrogels. In contrast, osteoarthritic chondrocytes revealed a loss of cartilage phenotype and minimal ability to generate robust cartilage.
Wie in diesem Protokoll angegeben, sind 3D-Hydrogele in der Lage, von Chondrozyten Phänotyp in Kultur zu halten, die Vermeidung der Prozess der Zell Entdifferenzierung in Faserknorpel-Zellen in der Regel mit Monolayer-Kulturen 15 angetroffen. Außerdem Langzeitkulturen der chondrocytes- Hydrogel Konstrukt zeigte eine günstige Umgebung, die die innere Zellfunktionen mit dem Alter und Erkrankung assoziiert beibehält.
Die Verwendung eines 3D biomimetischen Hydrogel hat mehrere Vorteile. Erstens ist die Aufnahme von Chondroitinsulfat (CS), eine wichtige Komponente im Gelenkknorpel gefunden, aktivieren Zellen, um die Hydrogelmatrix durch Sekretion von Chondroitinase abbauen und legte sich neu synthetisierte Knorpelextrazellulären Matrix 5, 16. Darüber hinaus CS hat sich gezeigt, In den entzündungshemmenden Eigenschaften im arthritischen Gelenk haben. Die biomimetischen Hydrogel kann auch als Gerüstmaterial für Zellabgabe bei der Knorpelreparatur verwendet werden, und können chemisch modifiziert seinum bessere Gewebe-Biomaterial Integration 17,18 zu erleichtern.
Die Verwendung der PEG-CS Hydrogele ermöglicht Langzeitkulturen von Chondrozyten und die Bewertung der biochemischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften. Hier zeigen wir, wie diese Plattform kann nützlich für die vergleichende Analysen der verschiedenen Quellen von differenzierten Chondrozyten, um die optimale Zelltyp für die Knorpeltechnik zu definieren. Interessant ist, dass Chondrozyten in Hydrogele gekapselt lebensfähig bleiben und sich vermehren nach ihrem inneren Fähigkeiten. Hydrogelzusammensetzung Träger, in der Tat, das Wachstum von gesunden jugendlichen und erwachsenen Chondrozyten, wie in Abbildung 2 dargestellt. Die Zusammensetzung und Struktur der beschriebenen Hydrogele fördert auch die Knorpelgewebebildung, wie durch die Abscheidung einer funktionelle extrazelluläre Matrix durch Glycosaminoglycan beurteilt (GAG deutet ) Quantifizierung.
Ein zusätzlicher Vorteil ist, dass die Chondrozyten-Hydrogel-Konstruktekönnen für die mechanischen Eigenschaften des neu gebildeten Knorpelgewebe zu bewerten. Beachten Sie, dass der einaxialen Drucktest sollte auf der azellulären Hydrogel zum Vergleich durchgeführt werden. Die Hydrogele in der Tat, eine Eigensteifigkeit auf Grund der Steifigkeit der CS-Einheiten. Einaxialen Druckverformung von 5-20% (bei einer Verformungsgeschwindigkeit 1% / s) kann für die mechanische Prüfung von Knorpelgewebe 11,12, da die physiologische Belastung von Knorpelgewebe unter Beladungszustand erlebt anzuwenden wurde berichtet, dass 10 bis 20 sein 13,14%. Die Reaktion der beiden Zellbeladenen und azellulären Hydrogele mechanische Prüfung wurde bei der Kultur Endpunkt ausgewertet. In dem beschriebenen Beispiel über beobachteten wir eine vergleichbare Steifigkeit der Konstrukte, die bei Erwachsenen und Jugendlichen Chondrozyten in Gegensatz zu der geringeren Steifigkeit der Konstrukte enthaltenden OA Chondrozyten. Solche mechanischen Eigenschaften der zell Hydrogel Konstrukt erlauben die Beurteilung der funktionellen Eigenschaften desgebildete Gewebe geben eine eingehende Analyse der Zellreifung Fähigkeit.
Abschließend kann die Verwendung der 3D biomimetischen Hydrogele, um das Potential verschiedener Chondrozytenpopulation studieren, um Knorpelgewebe erzeugen weithin angewandt werden. Neben den hier beschriebenen in vitro-Studien können in vivo Transplantation der Zellen beladene Konstrukten vorgesehen, um die Zellreifung und Regenerationspotential im physiologischen Bereich zu untersuchen. Weitere Modifikationen des Hydrogels Plattform mit zusätzlichen biomimetischen Faktoren können ebenfalls in Betracht gezogen werden, um Chondrozytenproliferation und Reifung zu optimieren.
The authors have nothing to disclose.
The authors would like to acknowledge Stanford Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Stanford Coulter Translational Seed Grant for funding. J.H.L. would like to thank National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship and DARE Doctoral Fellowship for support.
juvenile chondrocytes (Clonetics™ Normal Human Chondrocyte Cell System ) | Lonza | CC-2550 | |
adult chondrocytes (Clonetics™ Normal Human Chondrocyte Cell System) | Lonza | CC-2550 | |
poly(ethylene glycol diacrylate) | Laysan Bio | ACRL-PEG-ACRL-1000-1g | |
2-morpholinoethanesulfonic acid | Sigma | M5287 | |
photoinitiator | Irgacure | 2959 | |
sodium chloride | Sigma | S9888 | |
chondroitin sulfate sodium salt | Sigma | C9819 | |
N-hydroxysuccinimide | Sigma | 130672 | |
1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide hydrochloride | Sigma | E1769 | |
2-aminoethyl methacrylate | Sigma | 516155 | |
dialysis tubing | Spectrum Laboratories | 132700 | |
Collagenase 2 | Worthington Biochemical | LS004177 | |
Collagenase 4 | Worthington Biochemical | LS004189 | |
DMEM/F12 media | HyClone, Thermo Scientific | SH3002301 | |
live/dead assay | Life Technologies | L3224 | |
Tri reagent | Life Technologies | AM9738 | |
Quant-iT™ PicoGreen® dsDNA Assay Kit | Invitrogen | P11496 | |
Sodium phosphate dibasic | Sigma | S3264 | |
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt | Sigma | E5134 | |
L-Cysteine | Sigma | C1276 | |
1,9-dimethylmethylene blue | Sigma | 341088 | |
Instruments | |||
UV light equipment – XX-15LW Bench Lamp, 365nm | UVP | 95-0042-07 | |
Instron 5944 testing system | Instron Corporation | E5940 |