Chapter 3
Fundamentals of Chemistry
![What is Matter?](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13869.jpg)
The substance of the universe—from a grain of sand to a star—is called matter. Scientists define matter as anything that occupies space…
![The Periodic Table and Organismal Elements](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13168.jpg)
Elements are the smallest units of matter that cannot be broken down further by chemical processes. There are 118 known elements, but not all of…
![Chemical Symbols](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13872.jpg)
A chemical symbol is an abbreviation that is used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. We use…
![Atomic Number and Mass Number](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13873.jpg)
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is its atomic number (Z). This is the defining trait of an element. Its value determines the identity…
![Isotopes and Radioisotopes](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13874.jpg)
In the early 1900s, English chemist Frederick Soddy realized that an element could have atoms with different masses that were chemically…
![Electron Behavior](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13875.jpg)
Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles attracted to and orbit around the positively-charged nucleus of an atom. They reside in spaces…
![Ionic Bonds](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/10665.jpg)
When atoms gain or lose electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration they form ions. Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between…
![Covalent Bonds](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14368.jpg)
Overview
When two atoms share electrons to complete their valence shells, they create a covalent bond. An atom's electronegativity—the…
![Ions, Molecules, and Compounds](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13878.jpg)
Ions - When an atom participates in a chemical reaction that results in the donation or acceptance of one or more electrons, the atom becomes…
![States of Matter](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13879.jpg)
Solids, liquids, and gases are the three states of matter commonly found on Earth. A solid is rigid and possesses a definite shape. A liquid flows…
![Introduction to Chemical Reactions](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13880.jpg)
All chemical reactions begin with a reactant, the general term for one or more substances entering the reaction. Sodium and chloride ions, for…
![Types of Chemical Reactions: Anabolic and Catabolic](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13881.jpg)
The first law of thermodynamics holds that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—it can only change form. An organism's essential…
![Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13883.jpg)
Chemical reactions require sufficient energy to cause the matter to collide with enough precision and force that old chemical bonds can be broken and…
![Factors Influencing the Rate of Chemical Reactions](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/13884.jpg)
A variety of factors influence the rate of chemical reactions. For a chemical reaction to happen, atoms must collide with enough energy to overcome…
![The Bioconjugation and Radiosynthesis of <sup>89</sup>Zr-DFO-labeled Antibodies](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/thumbs/52521_t.png)
The exceptional affinity, specificity, and selectivity of antibodies make them extraordinarily attractive vectors for tumor-targeted PET…
![Measuring Lactase Enzymatic Activity in the Teaching Lab](https://jovecdn2.ccindex.cn/files/thumbs/54377_t.png)
Measuring Lactase Enzymatic Activity in the Teaching Lab
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Understanding how enzymes work, and relating this to real life examples, is critical to a wide range of undergraduate degrees in the biological and…