1. Retinal Slices Preparation
2. Paired Whole-cell Recordings
Representative traces of light responses from neurons in vertical slices of salamander retina are shown in Figure 3. The cone, horizontal cell, and OFF bipolar cell all display an outward current in response to light onset. The prominent inward current following the light flash in the horizontal and bipolar cell recordings is caused by the increased release of glutamate from photoreceptors as they depolarize at light offset. The ON bipolar cell responds with an inward current at light onset resulting from a sign-inverting metabotropic glutamate receptor signaling cascade and activation of TRPM1 channels9. Horizontal cells and bipolar cells can be distinguished from one another by their I-V relationships (Figure 4). Horizontal cells typically have a linear or inwardly rectifying I-V and low input resistance (<500 MΩ; Figure 4A) while bipolar cells have a high input resistance (0.5-2 GΩ) and outwardly-rectifying I–V (Figure 4B). Figure 5 shows representative results from recordings of a cone-horizontal cell pair (Figure 5A) and cone-OFF bipolar cell pair (Figure 5B). In each, depolarizing the cone to -10 mV from a holding potential of -70 mV evoked a voltage-gated calcium current in the cone and fast inward EPSC in the horizontal or bipolar cell. This strong stimulus is sufficient to empty the readily-releasable pool of ~20 vesicles from each synaptic ribbon, resulting in an EPSC of ~47 pA/ribbon10. The horizontal cell EPSC in Figure 5A was 232 pA, suggesting that it received 5 ribbon contacts from the presynaptic cone. A similar estimate from the 178 pA EPSC in the off bipolar cell (Figure 5B) suggests that it received 4 ribbon contacts from the presynaptic cone.
Amphibian saline | Presynaptic pipette | Postsynaptic pipette | |
NaCl | 116 mM | 3.5 mM | 3.5 mM |
KCl | 2.5 mM | ||
CaCl2 | 1.8 mM | 1 mM | 1 mM |
MgCl2 | 0.5 mM | 1 mM | 1 mM |
HEPES | 10 mM | 10 mM | 10 mM |
Glucose | 5 mM | ||
Cs-glutamate* | 40 mM | ||
Cs-gluconate** | 50 mM | 90 mM | |
Tetraethylammonium Chloride | 10 mM | 10 mM | |
ATP-Mg | 9 mM | 9 mM | |
GTP | 0.5 mM | 0.5 mM | |
EGTA | 5 mM | 5 mM | |
pH*** | 7.8 | 7.2 | 7.2 |
Osmolarity**** | 245 mOsm | 240 mOsm | 240 mOSM |
*Cs-glutamate is made by neutralizing 40 mM L-glutamic acid with 40 mM CsOH in the pipette solution. ** A 1 M stock of Cs-gluconate is made by neutralizing a solution of CsOH with 45-50% D-gluconic acid. ***The pH should be adjusted with NaOH for the extracellular solution and CsOH for the pipette solutions. **** Keeping the osmolarity of the pipette solutions just below that of the extracellular solution prevents cell swelling and enhances longevity of the recording.
Table 1. Components and parameters for the standard intracellular and extracellular solutions used in this protocol.
Figure 1. Recording chamber design. (A-C) Top, side, and cutaway views of the recording chamber showing dimensions. The chamber is machined from a 2 mm thick piece of acrylic. (D) Assembled chamber. Superfusate enters the chamber through a 10 cm length of Teflon tubing (inflow tube; type 24LW). Superfusate is removed by applying mild suction to a beveled 20 gauge metal tube at the other side of the chamber. Adjacent to this output tube is a Ag/AgCl pellet reference electrode. The lead from this reference electrode is connected to the reference input of the headstage. A small triangle of KimWipe is placed over the reference electrode to keep it in contact with the solution and regulate solution flow into the outflow tube. The base of the chamber is formed by placing a glass microscope slide into the recessed edges of the chamber. The slide is held in place with a bead of vacuum grease. Strips of nitrocellulose membrane with retinal slices are embedded in beads of vacuum grease that form a channel for solution to flow. Prior to making slices, a 5 x 10 mm piece of nitrocellulose membrane is affixed to the chamber with two small beads of vacuum grease. A piece of the eyecup is placed vitreal side down on this nitrocellulose membrane and lifted away once the retina adheres. Click here to view larger figure.
Figure 2. Dye-filled cell pairs in vertical slice preparation. A) Images of a rod and synaptically-coupled horizontal cell that were filled with contrasting fluorescent dyes introduced via the patch pipette during simultaneous whole-cell recording. Lucifer yellow (2 mg/ml) was included in the rod pipette solution (yellow) and sulfarhodamine B (1 mg/ml) was included in the horizontal cell pipette solution (purple). Fluorescent images were captured using a spinning disc confocal microscope (Perkin Elmer Ultraview LCI) equipped with a cooled CCD camera (Orca ER) and mounted to the fixed stage microscope (Nikon E600 FN with 60X, 1.0 NA water immersion objective). These images were overlaid on bright field images of the corresponding retinal slices using Adobe Photoshop. B) Images of a cone and synaptically-coupled OFF bipolar cell. The bipolar cell axon terminal ramifies in the outermost (S1) sublamina of the inner plexiform layer near the border with the inner nuclear layer. C) Images of a cone and synaptically-coupled horizontal cell. Note that the cone terminals are considerably larger than the axon terminal of the rod. Although horizontal cells can be identified by the oblong shape of their cell bodies, cell bodies of ON- and OFF-type bipolar cells in the INL cannot be easily distinguished prior to recording. However, one can target displaced cone-driven OFF bipolar cells which have cell bodies in the ONL and can be distinguished from cones by the absence of inner and outer segments. The scale bar is 20 μm.
Figure 3. Light-evoked currents recorded under voltage clamp from four different retinal neurons in response to a bright 500 msec flash of white light. The cone (A), horizontal cell (B), and off bipolar cell (C) all responded to light with an outward current. (D) The on bipolar cell responded to the same light stimulus with an inward current. The baseline noise exhibited by the off bipolar cell (C) reflects a continual release of synaptic vesicles in darkness that diminishes when photoreceptors hyperpolarize in light. Responses from these four cells were obtained in separate recordings using slices prepared under white light. The intensity of the white light stimulus used in these examples produced responses in horizontal and bipolar cells equivalent to 580 nm photon flux of 1 x 105 photons/sec/μm2.
Figure 4. Current-voltage (I-V) relationships of horizontal and off bipolar cells. (A) Top panel, membrane currents evoked by a series of 150 msec voltage steps from -120 to +40 mV applied in 20 mV increments (bottom panel) to a horizontal cell. Horizontal cells typically have a low input resistance and linear or inwardly rectifying I-V relationships. (B) I-V relationship of an off bipolar cell in response to a series of voltage steps. Bipolar cells have a higher input resistance and an outwardly rectifying I-V, due to the activation of voltage-gated potassium currents.
Figure 5. Examples of paired recording data. (A) Recording of the cone voltage-gated calcium current (Cone ICa) in response to a 100 msec step to -10 mV from a holding potential of -70 mV (Cone Vm). Leak and capacitance transients were subtracted using a P/8 leak subtraction protocol. A fast excitatory post-synaptic current (EPSC; HC PSC) was recorded simultaneously from a horizontal cell, showing that these two cells are synaptically coupled. (B) An EPSC was recorded in an off bipolar cell in response to the same stimulus in another cone.
Name of the reagent/material | Company | Catalogue number | Comments (optional) |
Tissue slicer | Stoelting | 51425 | |
Double edge razor blades | Ted Pella, Inc | 121-6 | |
Nitrocellulose membranes | Millipore | AAWP02500 | Type AAWP 0.8 mm pore |
Borosilicate glass pipettes | World Precision Instruments | TW120F-4 | 1.2mm OD 0.95 mm ID |
Ag/AgCl pellet | Warner | E206 | |
MicroFil | World Precision Instruments | MF34G-5 | 34 ga. Filling needle, 67 mm long |
One of the central tasks in retinal neuroscience is to understand the circuitry of retinal neurons and how those connections are responsible for shaping the signals transmitted to the brain. Photons are detected in the retina by rod and cone photoreceptors, which convert that energy into an electrical signal, transmitting it to other retinal neurons, where it is processed and communicated to central targets in the brain via the optic nerve. Important early insights into retinal circuitry and visual processing came from the histological studies of Cajal1,2 and, later, from electrophysiological recordings of the spiking activity of retinal ganglion cells – the output cells of the retina3,4.
A detailed understanding of visual processing in the retina requires an understanding of the signaling at each step in the pathway from photoreceptor to retinal ganglion cell. However, many retinal cell types are buried deep in the tissue and therefore relatively inaccessible for electrophysiological recording. This limitation can be overcome by working with vertical slices, in which cells residing within each of the retinal layers are clearly visible and accessible for electrophysiological recording.
Here, we describe a method for making vertical sections of retinas from larval tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum). While this preparation was originally developed for recordings with sharp microelectrodes5,6, we describe a method for dual whole-cell voltage clamp recordings from photoreceptors and second-order horizontal and bipolar cells in which we manipulate the photoreceptor’s membrane potential while simultaneously recording post-synaptic responses in horizontal or bipolar cells. The photoreceptors of the tiger salamander are considerably larger than those of mammalian species, making this an ideal preparation in which to undertake this technically challenging experimental approach. These experiments are described with an eye toward probing the signaling properties of the synaptic ribbon – a specialized synaptic structure found in a only a handful of neurons, including rod and cone photoreceptors, that is well suited for maintaining a high rate of tonic neurotransmitter release7,8 – and how it contributes to the unique signaling properties of this first retinal synapse.
One of the central tasks in retinal neuroscience is to understand the circuitry of retinal neurons and how those connections are responsible for shaping the signals transmitted to the brain. Photons are detected in the retina by rod and cone photoreceptors, which convert that energy into an electrical signal, transmitting it to other retinal neurons, where it is processed and communicated to central targets in the brain via the optic nerve. Important early insights into retinal circuitry and visual processing came from the histological studies of Cajal1,2 and, later, from electrophysiological recordings of the spiking activity of retinal ganglion cells – the output cells of the retina3,4.
A detailed understanding of visual processing in the retina requires an understanding of the signaling at each step in the pathway from photoreceptor to retinal ganglion cell. However, many retinal cell types are buried deep in the tissue and therefore relatively inaccessible for electrophysiological recording. This limitation can be overcome by working with vertical slices, in which cells residing within each of the retinal layers are clearly visible and accessible for electrophysiological recording.
Here, we describe a method for making vertical sections of retinas from larval tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum). While this preparation was originally developed for recordings with sharp microelectrodes5,6, we describe a method for dual whole-cell voltage clamp recordings from photoreceptors and second-order horizontal and bipolar cells in which we manipulate the photoreceptor’s membrane potential while simultaneously recording post-synaptic responses in horizontal or bipolar cells. The photoreceptors of the tiger salamander are considerably larger than those of mammalian species, making this an ideal preparation in which to undertake this technically challenging experimental approach. These experiments are described with an eye toward probing the signaling properties of the synaptic ribbon – a specialized synaptic structure found in a only a handful of neurons, including rod and cone photoreceptors, that is well suited for maintaining a high rate of tonic neurotransmitter release7,8 – and how it contributes to the unique signaling properties of this first retinal synapse.
One of the central tasks in retinal neuroscience is to understand the circuitry of retinal neurons and how those connections are responsible for shaping the signals transmitted to the brain. Photons are detected in the retina by rod and cone photoreceptors, which convert that energy into an electrical signal, transmitting it to other retinal neurons, where it is processed and communicated to central targets in the brain via the optic nerve. Important early insights into retinal circuitry and visual processing came from the histological studies of Cajal1,2 and, later, from electrophysiological recordings of the spiking activity of retinal ganglion cells – the output cells of the retina3,4.
A detailed understanding of visual processing in the retina requires an understanding of the signaling at each step in the pathway from photoreceptor to retinal ganglion cell. However, many retinal cell types are buried deep in the tissue and therefore relatively inaccessible for electrophysiological recording. This limitation can be overcome by working with vertical slices, in which cells residing within each of the retinal layers are clearly visible and accessible for electrophysiological recording.
Here, we describe a method for making vertical sections of retinas from larval tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum). While this preparation was originally developed for recordings with sharp microelectrodes5,6, we describe a method for dual whole-cell voltage clamp recordings from photoreceptors and second-order horizontal and bipolar cells in which we manipulate the photoreceptor’s membrane potential while simultaneously recording post-synaptic responses in horizontal or bipolar cells. The photoreceptors of the tiger salamander are considerably larger than those of mammalian species, making this an ideal preparation in which to undertake this technically challenging experimental approach. These experiments are described with an eye toward probing the signaling properties of the synaptic ribbon – a specialized synaptic structure found in a only a handful of neurons, including rod and cone photoreceptors, that is well suited for maintaining a high rate of tonic neurotransmitter release7,8 – and how it contributes to the unique signaling properties of this first retinal synapse.